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HANDWORK  IN 
WOOD 


Sy  WILLIAM  NOYES,  M.A. 

Assistant   Professor.  Department  of  Industrial  Arts 

Teachers   College,   Columbia   University 

NEW  YORK  CITY 


The  Manual  Arts  Press 
Peoria,  Illinois 


i"^' 


aO 


COPYRIGHT 

WILLIAM  NOYES 

1910 


g^CI,A•i?3:^i4 


Oo  ntY  students 
past  present  an6  future 

a  token  of  gratitude 
for  belp  anb  inspiration 


FOREWORD 

This  book  is  intt'iided  jJriniarily  for  teacliers  of  woodworlc,  but  tlie 
aiitlior  hopes  that  there  will  also  be  other  workers  in  wood,  profes- 
sional and  amateur,  who  will  {ind  in  it  matter  of  interest  and  profit. 
The  successful  completion  of  the  book  is  due  chiefly  to  the  un- 
tiring assistance  of  uiy  wife,  Anna  Gausmann  Noyes,  avIio  has  made 
almost  all  of  the  drawings,  corrected  the  text,  read  the  proof,  and 
attended  to  numberless  details. 

Acknowledgments  are  hereby  thankfully  given  for  corrections  and 
suggestions  in  the  text  made  l)y  the  following  persons : 

Mr.  Chas.  W.  Weick  of  Teachers  College,  and  Mr.  W.  F.  Vroom 
of  Public  School  Xo.  .5,  of  Xew  York  City,  for  revision  of  Chapters 
IV  and  \  on  tools  and  fastenings. 

Mr.  Clinton  S.  VanDeusen  of  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute,  for 
revision  of  Chapter  X  on  wood  finishing. 

The  Forest  Service,  Washingtou,  D.  C.  for  the  originals  of  Figs. 
1.  2,  3,  5,  7,  8,  1),  1(1,  n,  13,  17.  18,  21,  22,  23,  24,  26,  27, 
28,  29,  31,  33,    and  54. 

The  Xew  York  State  Forest  Fish  and  Game  Commission  for  the 
originals  of  Figs.  12,  14,  15,  and  47. 

T.  H.  McAllister  of  New  York  for  the  originals  of  Figs.  1(3  and  20. 

The  Detroit  Publishing  Company  for  the  original  of  Fig.  6. 

The  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Company,  Hyde  Park.  ^lass.,  for  the  orig- 
inal of  Fig.  57. 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.  for  the  original  of  Fig.  3(». 

Mr.  Louis  A.  Bacon,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  for  the  claui])ing  device 
shown  in  Fig  255. 

Sargent  &  Company,  Xew  Haven,  Conn.,  W.  C.  Toles  &  Com- 
pany, Chicago,  ill.,  The  Berlin  Machine  Works,  Beloit,  Wis.,  A.  A. 
Loetscher,  Dubuque,  Iowa,  and  the  Stanley  Eule  and  Level  Co.,  Xew 
Britain,  Conn.,  for  electrotypes. 

Allis  Chalmers  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Clark  Brothers,  Bel- 
mont, X.  Y.,  The  M.  Garland  Company.  Bay  City,  Mich.,  The  Pres- 


cott    ComiiaiiT,    Menominee,   Mich.,   for    illustrations    of   sawmilling 
machinery. 

And  most  of  all,  I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  obligation  to  the  nu- 
merous writers  of  whose  books  and  articles  I  have  made  free  use,  to 
which  references  are  made  in  the  appropriate  places. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

General  Bibliography 4 

I     Logging ? 

11     Sawmilling 30' 

III  The  Seasoning  and  Measnring  of  Wood     ....  45. 

IV  Wood  Hand  Tools 51 

V     Wood  Fastenings 123 

VI     Eqnipment  and  Care  of  the  Shop 136 

VII     Tlie  Common  Joints 151 

A^III     Types  of  Wooden  Strnctnres 183 

IX     Principles  of  Joinery 203 

X     Wood  Finishing 209 

Index 224 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRArHY 

Adams.  Heiuv.  Joints  in   \Vn<>(I-^Vurh■.     London:   GO  Queen  Victoria  St.     1894. 

Alexander.  Jerome.  77/r  (Inidiiifi  and  I'sv  of  Glue.  Wood  Craft,  5:   1G8,  Sep.  '06. 

Bailey.  Charles  H..  .1  »s7»(/v  of  Manual  Training  Equipments.    Manual  Train- 
in;/  Magazine.  ():82.     dan.   "05. 

Barnard.  Charles,  Tools  and  Maehincs.     N.  V.:   Silver,  Burdett  and  Co.     1003. 

Barter.  S.  M..   Woodn:ork.     London:    Whittaker  and  Co.     18!t2. 

Benson.  \\'.  A.   S.,  Elements  of  Handicraft   and  Design.     London:    Macmillan 
and  Co.     18'J3. 

lirannt.    W.   T..    i'ai)iler,    (lilder  and    Varnisher.     Philadelphia:    H.    C.    Baird 
&  Co.     18!t3. 

JSrunekeii.   Ernest   Xorth    Ameriean    Forests  and  Forestry  X.    Y. :      G.   P.   Put- 
nam's Sons.      ISiMl. 

Clark.   R.   L.    Varnish    and  Fossil   h', mains.      London:    ('has.   Letts  &   Co.      No 
date. 

Compton,  A.   G..   First    Lessons   in    W ood n'orki ng.      X.   Y.:      Ivison,    Blakeman. 
Taylor  and  Co.      IHSS. 

Crawshaw.  Fred  D..   I'rotilenis   in  Furniture  Making.     Peoria.  111.:     The  ;\lan- 
ual   Arts  Press.      l!l()(i. 

Disston.  Henry,  and   Sons.  Handbook  for  Lumbermen.     Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Dunlaj).    Frederick.    Kiln-drying    Hardwood    Lumber.      Wood    Craft.    0:     133, 
Fel..  "07. 

Ellis.   George.   Mod<r,i    I'laelival   .loinerg.      London:    B.    T.    Batsfiu'd.    486   pp., 
I'.tO-J.   "(t3.  "(14   and    "(17. 

Encyclopedia   Britannica,    Lac.    Varnish.     X".   Y. :     Serilmer's.      1878. 

Foster.    Edwin   W..   Fleineutarg    W(nid u-orking.      Boston:      (xinn   and  Co. 

Goss.  W.  F.  M.,  Bench   Work  in   Wood.     Boston:    Ginn  and  Co.    1887  and  lOOo. 

Grillith.   Ira  S..  Essentials  of   Wood uoiking.    Peoria  111.:    Manual  Arts  Press. 
liKIS. 

Hanunachcr.  Schlcmmer  &  Co..  7'oo/.s.     Catalo,«r  Xo.  3.-)ri.     X'.  Y.      1!)0S. 

Hanimacher   Schlcmmer   A    Co..    Cabinet    Hardnare.      Catalog'  Xo.    lol.      X.   Y. 

l!t()4. 
llodiison.     Fred    T.,    77/(     I  ii-lo-d<ili      llanhrood    Finishir.      Chicago:      Frc<l    J. 

Drake    and  Co.       l'.H)4. 
llodi;>on    Fred   T.      The   Carpenter's   Slat    S(iuare   and    Its    I'.^es.      X.   Y. :       In- 
dustrial   Pnhlishin--   Co.       1880. 
Hovey-King,    .Mvin,    The   Lumber   Industry   of   the    I'acifie   Coast.     Review   of 
Iferieus.     27:    317.   .Mr,.  "((3. 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  5 

Hulbert,  W.  H.,  The  Lumber  Jack  and  His  Job.     OiUlook,  76:  801,  Ap.  2,  '04. 
International     Correspondence     School,     The     Bnildiiui     Trades     Pocketbook. 

Scranton,  Pa.     International  Textbook  Co.     -ind  edition.     1905. 
International    Eneyelopedia.    Lac-I nscct,    VaDiisli.      X.    Y. :    Dodd,    Mead    and 

Co.      1902-1904. 
Jones,  J.  E.,  Lumberhui   in   tJic  XorfJiii-c.si .     ('osmoiioJitan,  15:    03,  May  1893. 
Larsson.  Gustaf,  FAemenhuji  S/ui/d  mi, I   WliUtUiKj.     N.  Y. :   Silver,  Burdett  & 

Co.      1906. 
Maire,    F.,    The    Modern     Wood    Finisher.      Chicago:     Press    of    the    Western 

Painter. 
Munn,  M.  J..  Great  Industries  of  the  I  .  S. — Lumber.     ('osmopoUtan,  37:    441, 

Aug.   '04. 
Murray,    M.    \V..    Froblems    in     \Voo<l-irorkin<i.      Peoria.    111.:     Manual    Arts 

Press.      1905. 
Murray,  M.  W.,  The  Manual   Traiiiin;/  Room   and  Its  Fiiuipiiient.      Year  Book 

of   the  Council  of  tSiiperrisors  fur   19(!().     ])p.   09-S(i. 
Park.    Joseph    C.      Educational    Woodirorkiiifi    for    t^chool    and    Home.      The 

]\lacniillan  Co..  1908. 
Pinchot.    Clifford,   A    Primer   of    Forest ri/.      Parts    I    and    II,    U.    S.    i:)ept.    of 

Agric.  For.  Serv.  Bull.  Xo.  24.     1899  and  1905. 
Purfield.  H.  T..  The  Length  of  Xails.     Wood   Craft.  5:    181.   8p.   •()('.. 
Rivingston.  see  South  Kensington  Council  on  Education. 

Rouillion.    Louis.      Fcouomies   of   Manual   Training.      X.   Y. :    The   Derry   Col- 
lard  Company.     1905. 
Roth,  Filibert.  A   First   Hook  of  Forest ri/.     Boston:   Ginn  &   Co.      1902. 
Sargent  &  Co.,  ^tandaid  Steel  Stjuares.     Xew  Haven.  Conn. 
Seaton.   Geo.    A..    .1    ('lamp   for    t'se   at    the    (Irindstone.      Woodcraft,    6:    90. 

Jan.,  '07. 
Selden.   F.   IL.  Flementaii/    Woodirork.     X.   Y.:    Rand,   McXally  &   Co.      1901). 
Siokels.  Ivin.  Exercises  in    Woodirorkiiif/.     X.  Y.:    D.  Appleton  &  Co.      1889. 
Smith.  K..  Lumberinf/  bii   Machinerii.     World's  Work,  7:   4435,  Feb.  '04. 
Smith,  R.  H..  Cutting  Tools.     London:   Cassell  &  Co.      1884. 
South    Kensington    Council    on    Education,    Xoles    on    linil'ling    Construction. 

3  vols.     London:    Rivington.      1883-1889. 
Standage,    H.   C,    Glues   aud    Cements   for   the    Use   of    Woodirnrkers.      Wood 

Craft,  7:   48.  May,   "07. 
Tate.    James    M..    Training    in     Wood    Work-.      Minneapolis:     X'orth    Western 

School    Supply   Co.      About    1905. 
Trout.  W.  H.,  The  Modern  Hair  Mill.     Cassier's  Magazine.   11:    83-95,   184-195, 

Dec.    ■9(i   and   .Ian.    '97. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Forest  Serricc  Classified  List  of  I'uhlicMions. 
Forest  Service  Bulletins: 

No.    10.   Filibert,    Roth.    Timber.      1S95. 

X'o.  34.  Wm.  F.  Fox,  A  Hi.'itorg  of  the  Lumber  fndustrg  in   the  State  of 
New  York,   1902. 

Xo.   41.   Hermann   von    Schrenk.   Seasoning   of   Tiinlicr.      1903. 


6  HANDWORK    IX    AVOOD. 

\'aii  Deiison.  I'liiiton  S.,  Mcllnxls  of  Wuud  FiiiiHliiiuj.     Mdinial  Traininy  May- 

(iziuc.  li:   il-S.     Jan.  '05. 
Van  Deiiseii.  Cliiitoii   S..   Lojif/ii/n   in   the   Sniifli.      Mniiinil   Tniiuing   Magazine, 

1:    93.     -laii.   "(Kl. 
Wlioeler.  C.  (;..    WcKnlirorLinii   for   H(<iiiiiirrs.     N.   Y.:    G.   P.   I'litnam's   Sons. 

18!)!). 
White,  Stewart   Kdwaid.   The  Blazed  Trail.     N.   Y.:    McCluie,   Phillips  &  Co. 

1904. 
White,    Stewart    Edward.    From    Forest    to    Hair    Mill,      ■/iniior    Mtntseij,    10: 

■M;2.    .Te.    "01. 
Aiiiin\  iiious. 

Xails.      Wood   Craft,      .i :    103.   .11.   '(Mi. 

A  Drji-Kiht   of  I'ronn.ssirr  Sti/lc.     Wood  Craft,  0:    31,   Nov.   "06. 
LunihcriiKi   in   Louisiana.      Wood   Craft,  4:    55,  Nov.   "05. 
The  Lac  Indiislry  of  A.^sani.  Jonrnal  of  the  Society  of  .irt.s.     49:    192.     Feb. 

8.  "01. 


Chapter  I. 


LOGGING. 


The  rough  and  ready  methods  coninioii  in  American  logging  oper- 
ations are  the  result  partly  of  a  tradition  of  inexhaustible  supply, 
partly  of  the  fear  of  tire  and  the  avoidance  of  taxes,  partly  of  an 
eagerness  to  get  rich  qnick.  Most  of  the  logging  has  been  done  on 
privately  owned  land  or  on  shamelessly  stolen  public  land,  and  the 
Inmberman  had  no  further  interest  in  the  forest  than  to  lumber  it 
expeditiously. 

Preliminary  to  the  actual  logging  are  certain  necessary  steps. 
First  of  all  is  landloohing.     This  includes  the  survey  of  the  forest 


Fig-.  1.  Making'  a  Valuation  Survey 


land  for  the  purpose  of  locating  good  tindjer.  Fig.  1.  Most  of  the 
woodland  has  previously  been  roughly  surveyed  by  the  government 
and  maps  made  indicating  which  parts  are  private  land  and  which 
are  still  held  by  the  government.  The  boundaries  of  townships,  sec- 
tions, quaitcr  sections,  eighties,  forties,  etc.,  are  indicated  by  "blazes"' 

7 


8 


IIAXDAVOBK    IN    WOOD. 


on  trees,  Fig.  2,  so  that  the  "cruiser"  or  "looker"  as  he  goes  thru  the 
woods  can  identify  them  with  those  on  his  oil  paper  map.  The  cruiser 

also  studies  tlie  kinds  and  char- 
acter of  tlie  trees,  the  contour  of 
the  ground,  the  proximity  to 
streams. — all  with  the  view  to 
marketing  tlie  product.  Acting 
on  the  infonuation  thus  gained 
hy  the  cruiser,  the  lumberman 
]nirchases  his  sections  at  the 
[)ropor  hind  office,  or  if  he  is 
less  scrupulous,  buys  only 
enough  to  serve  as  a  basis  for 
operations.  r]normous  fortunes 
have  been  made  by  timber 
thieves,  now  respectable  meni- 
l)ers  of  the  community.  As  a  fur- 
tlu'r  ])i'cliiiiinary  step  to  lum- 
bering itscir.  tlu'  tofc  road  and 
(■ami)  '^^"*^  Iniilt.  The  tote  road 
is  a  rough  lond  on  wliich  su})- 
])lies  for  crew  and  cattle  can  be 
taken   to  camp  from  civilization. 


Blazes"  on  Trees 


It  is  barely  passahlc  for  a  team  and  a  wa.udn.  but  it  serves  its  purpo.se,  and 
over  it  come  more  men  and  horses,  lumber  for  the  floors  and  roofs  of  the  shan- 
ties and  for  the  rude  ])ieces  of  furniture  that  will  be  needed,  tarred  paper  to 
make  the  roofs  tit;ht.  a  few  glazed  window  sashes,  a  huge  range  and  a 
number  of  box  stoves,  dishes  and  kitchen  utensils,  a  little  stock  of  goods 
for  the  van.  blankets  by  tlie  dozen  and  score,  and  countless  boxes  and  bar- 
rels and  bags  of  provisions.^ 

The  camp  itself,  Fig.  3,  is  built  of  logs,  roofed  with  plank,  cov- 
ered with  heavy  tar  pajier,  and  dimly  lighted.  There  are  usually 
five  buihlings, — the  men's  camp,  the  cook  camp,  the  office,  the  barn, 
and  the  blacksmith's  sliop.  ]\lany  camps  accommodate  from  eighty 
io  one  hundred  men.  Tlie  men's  camp  is  filled  with  bunks  and  is 
heated  by  a  stove  and  in  general  roughly  furnished.  Cooking  and 
eating  are  done  in  the  cook  camp,  where  the  cook  and  his  assistant, 
the  "cookee,"  sleep.     The  office  is  occupied  by  the  foreman,  log-scal- 

'Hulbert:  The  Lunil)er  Jack;  Oullook,  7o:  >S01.  April  2,  H)4. 


LOGGING. 


ers  and  clerks.  Here  the  books  and  accounts  are  kept,  and  here  is 
the  "van/"  stocked  with  such  goods  as  will  supply  the  immediate 
needs  of  the  lumber  jacks. 


Fig--  3.     Winter  'Loirgimr  Camp.     Itasco  County,  Minnesota 


Before  Avinter  sets  in  the  main  road  is  built,  Fig.  15,  p.  1^,  very 
carefully  graded  from  the  camp  down  to  the  nearest  mill  or  railway 
siding,  or  oftener  to  the  stream  down  which  the  logs  are  to  be  floated. 
This  road  has  to  he  as  wide  as  a  city  street,  25  feet.  The  route  is 
carefully  chosen,  and  the  grade  is  made  as  easy  as  possible.  Much 
labor  is  spent  upon  it,  clearing  away  stumps  and  rocks,  leveling  up 
with  corduroy,  building  bridges  strong  enough  to  carry  enormous 
loads,  and  otherwise  making  it  as  passable  as  can  be;  for  when 
needed  later,  its  good  condition  is  of  first  importance.  This  main 
road  is  quite  distinct  from  and  much  superior  to  the  tote  road. 

At  inteivals  alongside  the  main  road,  small  squares  called  sJiid- 
loays  are  cleared  of  brush  and  in  each  of  them  two  tree  trunks, 
"skids,"  are  laid  at  right  angles  to  the  road.  On  these  the  logs,  when 
cut  later,  are  to  be  piled.  Back  from  the  skidways  into  the  woods 
the  swampers  cut  rough,  narrow  roads  called  dray  roads  or  travoy 
roads,- — mere  trails  sufficiently  cleared  of  brush  to  allow  a  team  of 
horses  to  pull  a  log  thru. 

All  these  are  operations  preliminary  to  the  felling  of  trees.  The 
tools  commonly  used  in  logging  are  shown  in  Fig.  4.  When  every- 
thing is  ready  for  felling,  the  "fitter'  goes  ahead  marling  each  tree 
to  be  felled  and  the  direction  in  which  it  is  to  fall  by  cutting  a 
notch  on  that  side.     Then  come  the  sawyers  in  pairs.  Fig.  5.     First 


10 


HAXDWOKK    IX    A\  OOD. 


Q 


w 


BILL     HOOr\ 


QAPHT    MOOh, 


WCOQE 


CROSb-COT      SAW 


fl 


CROWBAR. 


Fijr.  -••     Tools  used  in  hogifing. 

tlicy  clioi)  a  (Ico))  n'Msli  on  tlic  side  of  tlie  tii-e  toward  wliicli  it  is  to 
J'all.  and  tlicn  from  the  o]i|)o>itc  :^id('  Ix'.u'iii  cuttino'  wiili  a  long, 
'riittlc-tootli.  crosscnt-saw.  Tln'  saw  is  a  long,  Hcxihlf  i-il)l)oii  of 
steel,  witli  handles  so  allixcd  to  cacli  end  that  they  can  lie  icnioxcd 
easil\'.  The  cut  is  made  on  the  pnlling  stioke.  and  hence  the  keid' 
can  he  \rv\  nai'iow.  As  soon  as  the  saw  is  well  within  the  ti'Uid<. 
the  sawyers  drive  iron  wedges  into  the  kei'f  hehind  it,  ])artly  to  keep 
tlie  weigid  of  tlie  trunk'  fi'om  hinding  the  saw,  and  partly  t(t  direct 
its    fall.      'I'heii    the   saw    is   judleil    hack    and    forth,    and    the    wedges 


LOGGING. 


11 


driven  in  farther  and  farther,  until  every  stroke  of  the  maul  that 
drives  them  sends  a  shiver  thru  the  whole  tree.  Just  as  the  tree 
is  ready  to  go  over,  the  saw  han- 
dle at  one  end  is  unhooked  and 
the  saw  pulled  out  at  the  other 
side.  "Timber  I,""  the  men  cry 
out  as  a  warning  to  any  working 
near  by,  for  the  tree  has  begun 
to  lean  slightly.  Then  with  a 
hastening  rush  the  top  whistles 
thru  the  air,  and  tears  thru  the 
branches  of  other  trees,  and  the 
trunk  with  a  tremendous  crash 
strikes  the  ground.  Even  hard- 
ened loggers  can  hardly  keep 
from  shouting,  so  impressive  is 
the  sight  of  a  falling  giant  tree. 
All  this  seems  simple  enough 
in  outline,  but  the  actual  execu- 
tion requires  considerable  skill. 
Trees  seldom  stand  quite  vertical, 
there  is  danger  of  lodging  in  some  other  tiee  in  thick  woods,  and  it 
is  therefore  necessaiT  to  throw  trees  quite  exactly.  Some  men  become 
so  expert  at  this  that  they  can  plant  a  stake  and  drive  it  into  the 


Fig-.  5.     Felling  Red  Spruce  with  a  Saw. 
Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York. 


Fig-.  6.     Sawing  Logs  into  Lengths. 


12 


llAXDWOKK    IX    WOOD. 


ground  by  the  falling  trunk  as  truly  as  if  they  hit  it  with  a  maul. 

On  the  other  hand,  serious  accidents  often  happen  in  falling  trees. 

]\Iost  of  them  come 
fjom  "side  winders," 
i.  e.,  the  falling  of 
smaller  trees  struck  by 
(he  felled  trees. 

After  "falling"  a 
tree,  the  sawyers  mark 
olT  and  saw  the  trunk 
into  log  lengths.  Fig. 
6.  paying  due  attention 
to  the  necessity  of 
;i\iii(ling  knots,  forks, 
and  rotten  places,  so 
that  some  of  the  logs 
are  eighteen  feet,  some 
sixteen  feet,  some  four- 
teen feet,  and  some  only 

twelve  feet  in  lengi:h.     Meanwhile  the  swam]>ei's  trim  otf  the  liranches, 

Fig.  7,  a  job  requiring  no  little  skill,  in  ordei'  that  the  trunk  may  l)e 

sliaved  close  ])ut  not  gashed. 


Fig.  7.     Trimming'  off  Branches  of  Spruce 
Adirondack  Mountains,  New  Yoriv. 


I'Mtr- ^-     llaulinfT  Spruce  Logrs  to  llu-  Ski<l 
Adirotidack  Mountains,  New  '^'ork. 


LOGGIXG. 


13 


This  finishes  the  second  group  of  operations,  the  felling.  Xext 
the  logs  are  dragged  out  to  the  dray  roads,  Fig.  8.  A  heavy  pair  of 
tongs,  like  ice-tongs,  is  attached  to  one  end,  and  the  log  is  snaked 
out  hy  horses  to  the  skidway.  If  the  log  is  very  heavy,  one  end  is 
put  on  a  dray.  By  one  way  or  another  the  log  is  dragged  out  and 
across  the  two  parallel  skids,  on  which  it  is  rolled  by  cant-hooks  to 
the  end  of  skids  toward  the  road  way.  If  other  logs  already  occupy 
the  skids,  each  new  log  as  it  arrives  is  piled  on  the  first  tier.  As  the 
pile  grows  higher,  each  log  is  "decked,"  that  is,  rol'ed  up  parallel 
poles  laid  slanting  up  the  face  of  the  pile,  by  means  of  a  chain  passed 
under  and  over  the  log  and  back  over  the  pile.  Fig.  11.  A  horse 
hitched  to  the  end  of  the  chain  hau's  up  the  log,  which  is  guided  by 
the  "send-up  men"  with  their  cant-hooks. 

Once  piled  the  logs  are  ''scaled,"  that  is  measured  in  oider  to 
compute  the  number  of  hoard  feet  in  them.  Fig.  9.  The  scaler  gen- 
eral'y  has  an 
assistant.  for 
logs  in  large 
piles  must  be 
measured  a  t 
both  ends  in 
order  to  deter- 
mine which  is 
the  top.  the 
body  of  the  log 
being  out  of 
sight.  When 
uieasured  each 
end  of  the  log 
is  stamped  with 

a  hammer  with  the  owner's  mark,  by  which  it  can  afterward  be 
identified.  Here  the  logs  rest  and  the  felling  and  skidding  continue 
until  deep  snow  falls  and  then  the  sleigh  haul  begins. 

For  this  the  main  road  is  especially  prepared.  First  the  road  is 
carefully  ploived  with  an  immense  Y  plow,  weighted  down  by  logs. 
To  the  plow  are  attached  fans.  Only  an  inch  or  two  of  snow  is  ^eft 
on  the  ground  by  this  plow,  which  is  followed  by  another  special 
plow  to  gouge  the  ruts,  and  by  a  gang  of  "road  monkeys"  who  clear 


ritr  ''I      '  scaliu.' 


14 


iiaxd\voi;k  ix  wood. 


the  road  tlioroly.  Then  follows  an  immense  tank  set  on  runners  and 
holding  perhaps  seventy-five  barrels  of  water,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
flood  the  road  from  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  a  sort  of  roush 


Fiy.  10.     Makiiiiir  an    Ice  Koail 


road    sprinkler.    Fig.    t(t.      This   sprinkler   goes   over   the   road    again 
and  again  nntil  the  road  is  covered  hv  a  clear,  solid  sheet  of  ice  often 


FiU^.n.     DocKiny-  Lojj.s  oil  Skidway. 


LOGGING. 


1: 


two  feet  thick,  extending  from  the  skichvays  to  the  banking  grounds. 
This  ice  road  is  one  of  the  modern  improvements  in  logging.  Once 
iinished,  these  roads  are  heantiful  pieces  of  construction  with  deep, 
clear  ruts.  They  have  to  be  constantly  watched  and  repaired, 
and  this  is  the  work  of  the  "road  monkeys."     If  possible  the  road 


Fig-.  12.     Loading  a  Sled  from  a  Skidway. 


has  been  made  entirely  with  down  grades  but  some  of  these  are 
so  steep  that  a  man  must  be  prepared  with  sand  or  hay  to  check  too 
headlong  a  descent. 

When  all  is  ready  the  sleigh  haul  begins.     Piling  on  the  sleighs 
or  bobs.  Fig.  12,  is  similar  to  piling  on  the  skidways,  l)ut  more  diffi- 
cult,  for   the    load   has   to   be 
carefully    balanced,     Fig.     13. 

Chains  bind  the  loads  but  the 

piling  is   only   too    apt   to   be 

defective,  and  the  whole  load 
"squash  out''  with  a  rush.     It 

is  a  time  of  feverish  activity. 
The  sprinklers  are  at  work  till 
after  midnight,  the  loaders  are 

out  long  before  daylight.     The 

blacksmith    is    l)usy    with    re- 

11  T  1  1  Fig.  13.     A  Load  of  Logs, 

pairs,    the    road     monkeys    work  FlaiUead  County,  Montana. 


16 


IIAXDWOIJK     IN     WOOD. 


oveitime,  and  the  cook  works  all  tlic  time  ••Kvcivljody  works."  The 
haul  itself  is  full  of  cxriteiiifiit.  'i'lic  [x.ndcrous  load  of  logs,  weigh- 
ing anywlii're  fioui  eight  to  thirty-tive  tons  has  to  be  conducted  largely 
by  its  own  nionientuni  down  this  giassy  road.  If  a  horse  fall  noth- 
ing can  save  its  life.  If  the  runners  get  out  of  the  ruts,  the  whole 
load,  driver  aiul  all.  is  likely  to  he  u])set.  It  is  an  extremely  hazard- 
ous job.  Fig.   1  •"").- 

As  t'ach  load  come-  down  to  the  hinilriinj  </rouiuls.  Fig.  14.  or  log 
(lum|).  it  is  stopped  opposite  long  parallel  skids.    The  wrapping  chains 

are  unhooked 
and  the  lower 
log  on  the  skid 
?ide  is  worked 
out  with  cant- 
hooks  till  the 
whole  load  Hat- 
tens  out.  The 
logs  are  then 
"ilecked''  o  n 
immense  piles, 
sometimes        a 

mile  loug  and  tilling  tbe  whole  river  fiom  bank  to  bank.  A  decking 
cliain  oOO  feet  long  is  sometimes  required  to  lol]  the  logs  to  their 
proper  places.  Heic  the  logs  rest  till  the  spidng  freshets  come.  Tliis 
completes  the  tiansportation  l)v  lamk 

With  the  coming  of  the  spring  thaw,  tbe  river  bed  is  filled  with 
a  freshet  of  water  which  seizes  and  canies  tlie  logs  down  stream. 
Many  on  the  l)a]d<s.  however,  have  to  be  started  on  their  wav,  and  this 
is  called  "■'breaking  out  the  roll  ways."  Thev  often  stai't  on  their 
water  journey  with  a  gi'eat  crash. 

Xow  comes  tJic  drive,  an  arduous  and  often  ])eri!ous  task.  Some 
of  tbe  men  are  stationed  along  the  sIkhcs  to  prevent  the  logs  from 
lodging  oi'  lloating  iido  bjiys  or  setbacks.  Some  stand  at  the  heads 
of  bars  or  islands,  wbeie  witb  pike  ]wles  thev  shove  off  the  logs  that 
might  sto])  there  and  form  a  jam:  oiheis  follow  "'sacking  the  rear" 
1o  clean  out  such  logs  as  may  have  become  sti'andeil.  This  '^'^sackino" 
ibe  rear"  takes  most  of  tbe  time.  F'ig.  Ki.  Wbil(>  '•on  the  di'ive" 
men  often  work  fourteen  hours  a  day,  a  good  part  of  the  time  up  to 
their  waists  in    ice   water.     Their  boots  are  shod  with   "caulks."   or 


Fiy.  "4.     ri.TiiKintr  Grounds. 


LOGGING. 


17 


Fi?.l5.     I'he  Sleigh  Haul. 


Fig-.  16.     Sacking  the  Rear. 


-  18 


UAXDWORK    IX    AVOOD. 


spikes,  to  keep  them  fiom  slipping  on  the  logs,  and  they  carry  either 
pike  poles  or  peaveys,  Fig.  17.     The  latter  are  similar  to  cant-hooks, 

except     that 


,1 


the  y  have 
sharp  pikes  at 
their  ends.  So 
armed,  they 
have  to  "ride 
any  kind  of  a 
log  in  any 
water,  to  pro- 
pel a  log  hy 
jumping  on  it. 
hy  rolling  it 
s{|iiiricl  fash- 
ion with  the 
feet,  l)y  punt- 


Fig-.  17.    hog  Driving  on  the  Ausable  River. 


ing  it  as  one 
would  a  ca- 
noe; to  he  skilful  in  pushing,  pryiiig,  and  poling  other  logs  from  the 
quarter  deck  of  the  same  cranky  craft."'  Altho  the  logs  are  carried 
by  the  river,  they  have  to  be  "driven''  with  amazing  skill  and  bravery. 
The  climax  of  hardship  and  courage  is  reached  when  a  "jam''  is 
formed.  Fig.  18.  Sometimes  one  or  two  logs  are  caught  in  such 
a  wav  as  to  he  locked  or  jammed  ami  then  soon  other  logs  begin 
to  accumulate  behind  them,  till  the  wliole  river  is  full  of  a  seemingly 
inextricable  mass.  Sometimes  these  jams  can  be  loosened  by  being- 
pulled  apart,  one  log  at  a  time.  A  hundred  men  can  pull  out  an 
amazing  nmnher  of  logs  in  a  day.  The  problem  always  is  to  set  free 
or  eut  out  certain  "key''  logs,  which  lock  the  whole  mass.  Following 
is  a  description  l)y  Stewart  Edward  White  of  the  breaking  of  such 
a  jam  : 

The  Clew  were  workinu  (Icspcrately.  Down  on  tlic  heap  sonu-wiiero.  two- 
lo<4'S  were  crossed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  locl<  the  wliole.  They  son^ht 
those  logs. 

Thirty  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river  six  men  clamped  their  peaveys 
into  the  soft  pine:  jerking,  pulling,  lifting,  sliding  the  great  logs  from 
their  ])laces.  Thirty  feet  below,  under  the  threatening  face,  six  other  men 
coolly  ])ickcd  out  and  set  adrift  one  by  one.  the  timbers  not  inextricably 
indiedded.      From    time    1o    time    the    mass    creaked,    settled,    perhaps    even 


LOGGING. 


19 


moved  a  foot  or  two ;  but  always  the  practised  rivermen,  after  a  glance, 
bent  more  eagerly  to  their  work.  "  "  *  Suddenly  the  six  men  below  the 
jam  scattered.  *  *  *  holding  their  peaveys  across  their  bodies,  they 
jumped  lightly  from  one  floating  log  to  another  in  the  zig-zag  to  shore.  *  *  * 


Fig-.  18.     Log-  Jam.     Adirondack  Mountain*,  New  York. 


In  the  meantime  a  barely  perceptible  motion  was  communicating  itself 
from  one  particle  to  another  thru  the  center  of  the  jam.  ■"  ""  ""  The  crew 
redoubled  its  exertion,  clamping  its  peaveys  here  and  there,  apparently  at 
random,  but  in  reality  with  the  most  definite  of  purposes.  A  sharp  crack 
exploded  immediately  underneath.  There  could  no  longer  exist  any  doubt 
as  to  the  motion,  altho  it  was  as  yet  sluggish,  glacial.  Then  in  silence  a 
log  shifted — in  silence  and  slowly — but  with  irresistible  force  *  *  *  other 
logs    in   all   directions   up-ended.     •»     *     * 

Then  all  at  once  down  by  the  face  something  crashed,  the  entire  stream 
became  alive.  It  hissed  and  roared,  it  shrieked,  groaned,  and  grumbled.  At 
first  slowly,  then  more  rapidly,  the  very  fore-front  of  the  center  melted  in- 
ward and  forward  and  downward;  until  it  caught  the  fierce  rush  of  the 
freshet  and  shot  out  from  under  the  jam.  Far  up-stream,  bristling  and 
formidable,  the  tons  of  logs,  grinding  savagely  together,  swept  forward.  *  *  * 

Then  in  a  manner  wonderful  to  behold,  thru  the  smother  of  foam  and 
spray,  thrvi  the  crash  and  yell  of  timbers,  protesting  the  flood's  hurrying, 
thru  the  leap  of  destructioii,  the  drivers  zigzagged  calmly  and  surely  to  the 
shore. 

Sometimes  cables  have  to  be  stretched  across  the  chasm,  and  spe- 
cial rigging  devised  to  let  the  men  do"\ra  to  their  dangerous  task  and 
more  especially  to  save  them  from  danger  when  the  crash  comes. 


20 


HANDWORK   IX   WOOD. 


Fi<r.  20      Splash-Dam. 


F iff.  21.     LofTS  in   liooni.     Clous  Falls,  New  York. 


LOGGING. 


21 


In  ease  sueli  efforts  are  unavailing,  it  is  necessary  to  "shoot"  the 
jam  with  dynamite.  Another  device  resorted  to  where  the  supply  of 
water  is  insufficient  is  the  splash-dam.  Fig.  30.  The  object  is  to 
make  the  operator  independent  of  freshets,  by  accumulating  a  head 
of  water  and  then,  by  lifting  the  gates,  creating  an  artificial  freshet, 
sufficient  to  float  the  timber  down  stream. 


Fiy.  22.     A   Sorting-  Jack. 

Thus  by  one  means  and  another,  the  logs  are  driven  along  until 
caught  by  a  boom,  Fig.  21.  which  consists  of  a  chain  of  logs  stretched 
across  the  river,  usually  at  a  mill.  Since  the  river  is  a  common 
carrier,  the  drives  of  a  number  of  logging  companies  may  float  into 
the  mill  pond  together.  But  each  log  is  stamped  on  both  ends,  so 
that  it  can  be  sorted  out.  Fig.  23,  and  sent  into  the  boom  of  its  owner. 


MECHANICAL   METHODS   IN    LUMBERING. 

The  operations  described  above  are  those  common  in  the  luml^er 
regions  of  the  northeast  and  the  Lake  States.  But  special  conditions 
produce  special  methods.  A  very  effective  device  where  streams  are 
small  is  the  flume.  Fig.  23.  This  is  a  long  wooden  trough  thru 
which  water  is  led,  and  the  logs  floated  end  on.  It  is  sometimes  many 
miles  long:    in  one  case  in  California  twentv-five  miles. 


22 


UAXDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


In  the  Soutli  where  there  is  no  snow,  logs  are  hirgely  brought  out 
to  the  railway  or  river  by  being  hung  under  immense  two-wheeled 
trucks,  called  slip-tongue  carts.  draAvn  by  mules,  Fig.  24.  The 
wheels  are  nearly  eio-ht  feet  in  diameter. 


Fig-.  23.     Six  Mik-  Flume.     Adirondack  Mountains.  New  Ymk. 

Soinc  kinds  (if  wood  ai'o  so  heavy  that  they  will  not  iloat  at  a'l, 
and  some  sink  so  readily  that  it  does  not  ])ay  to  transport  tliem  by 
river.     In  such  cases  temporary  railways  are  usually  resorted  to. 

On  the  Paciiic  coast,  where  the  forests  aie  dense,  the  trees  of  en(n'- 
mous  size,  and  no  ice  road  is  possilde,  still  othei'  special  methods  have 
been  devised.  On  so  great  a  scale  are  the  operations  conducted  that 
they  nuiy  properly  he  called  engineering  feats.  Consider  for  a  mo- 
ment the  size  of  the  trees;  red  ilr  ranges  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  in 
diameter,  is  commonly  two  hundred  fifty  feet  high,  and  sometimes 
three  hundred  twenty-five  feet  high.  The  logs  are  commonly  cut 
tweirty-four  feet  long,  and  such  iogs  often  weigh  thirtv  to  forty  tons 


Fip.  24.    Hauling  Logs  by   Mul 


LOGGING. 


23 


Fi^"-.  25.     A  Twenty-Five  Foot  Saw  used  toi  CrossLUtiiiif,'-  Bii>-  Lolt- 


eaeh,  and  the  logs  of  a  single  tree  may  weigh  together  one  hundred 
fifty  tons.  The  logging  of  such  trees  requires  special  appliances. 
Until  recently  all  the  improved  methods  were  in  forms  of  transpor- 
tation, the  felling  still  being  done  by  hand  with  very  long  saws,  Fig. 
25,  l)ut  now  even  the  felling  and  sawing  of  logs  in  the  forest  is  partly 
done  l)v  machinerv. 


Fig.  2i).     Hauling  Big^  hogs  by  Donkey  Enyme. 


24  HAXDWOUK    IX     WOOD. 

To  work  the  saw,  power  is  supplied  by  a  steam  or  gasoline  engine 
mounted  upon  a  truck  whicli  can  be  talcen  readily  from  place  to 
place.  As  the  maximum  power  recjuired  is  not  over  ten-horse-power, 
the  apparatus  is  so  light  that  it  can  be  moved  about  easily.  The  saw 
can  he  adjusted  to  cut  horizontally,  vertically,  or  obliquely,  and  hence 
is  used  for  sawing  into  lengths  as  well  as  tor  felling. 

FiiUiiKj  Iirds.  Since  the  weight  of  a  two  hundred  fifty  foot  fir  is 
such  that  if  the  impact  of  its  fall  he  not  gradually  checked  the  force 
with  wliicli  it  strikes  the  ground  may  split  the  trunk,  a  bed  for  its 
fall  is  preparc<l  l)y  the  swauipeis.  Usually  piles  of  l)rush  arc  placed 
as  buffers  along  tlie  "■falling  line"  so  that  the  ti'unk  will  strike  these. 
If  the  tree  stands  on  the  hill  .-idc  if  is  thio\\ii  up  hil  .  in  order  to 
shorten  tlie  fall. 

After  tlie  felling  comes  the  triuuning  of  f)iani-hes  and  knots  and 
"rossing""  of  bark,  to  lessen  the  friction  in  sliding  along  the  skidway. 

The  sl-idinuj.  By  the  skidway  in  the  Puget  Sound  region  is 
meant  a  corduroy  road.  This  is  constructed  of  tiunks  of  trees  rang- 
ing from  a  foot  to  two  feet  in  diameter.  These  ai'e  "rossed."  that  is. 
stripped  of  their  liark  and  laid  across  the  road,  where  they  are  held 
in  ])lace  bv  yv^ji^  (hiven  into  the  ground,  and  by  strips  s})iked  upon 
the  to])S  of  the  logs.  If  possible  thi'y  are  laid  in  swampy  places  to 
keep  the  surface  damp  and  slipi)ery.  At  turns  in  the  road,  pulleys 
are  hung,  thru  M-hich  the  hauling  cables  pass.  The  skidway  runs  to 
the  I'ailway  siding  or  water's  edge.  ()ver  these  skidways  the  logs  are 
hauled  out  bv  various  means.  Foriuerly  "strings""  of  oxen  or  Perch- 
eroti  horses  w^^vr  used,  but  they  ai'e  now  largely  superseded  by  some 
foi'ui  of  donkey  engine.  Fig.  2().  These  are  placed  at  the  center  of 
a  "yai'd."" 

"^'ai'ding  is  the  skidding  of  logs  to  the  railway  or  water  way  by 
means  of  these  donkey  engines.  Attached  to  the  donkey  engine  are 
two  druuis.  one  for  the  direct  cal)le.  three-foui'ths  to  one  inch  in  di- 
aiueter  and  often  half  a  mile  long,  to  haul  in  the  logs,  the  other  for 
the  siiiallei'  let  urn  cable,  twice  as  long  as  the  direct  cable  and  used 
to  haid  liaek  the  direct  eable.  At  the  uppi'r  end  of  the  skidway,  when 
the  logs  are  I'eadv  to  be  taken  to  the  railway  or  l)ooiiie(l,  they  are 
fasteued  togethei'.  end  to  end.  in  "tuiiis""  of  four  or  iu(u-e.  The 
dii'ect  cable  is  attached  to  the  fi-oiit  of  the  *"turn".  and  the  return 
cable  to  the  rear  end.  I>y  winding  the  direct  cable  on  its  drum,  the 
"turn"'  is  hauled  iri.     The  retui'U  cable  is  used  to  haul  back  the  end 


LOGGING. 


25 


of  the  direct  cable,  and  also,  in  case  of  a  jam,  to  pull  back  and 
straighten  out  the  turn.  Instead  of  a  return  cable  a  horse  is  often 
used  to  haul  out  the  direct  cable.  Signaling  from  the  upjjer  end  of 
the  skidway  to  the  engineer  is  done  by  a  wire  connected  to  the  don- 
key's whistle,  by  an  electric  bell,  or  by  telephone. 

Sometimes  these  donkey  engines  are  in  relays,  one  engine  hauling 
a  turn  of  logs  to  within  reacli  of  tlie  next  one,  which  passes  it  on  to 
the  next  until  the  sidino-  is  reached. 


Fig-. 


11   SkidiUi   at  Work.     Grant  Count}-, 
Arkansas. 


Wheic  there  are  steep  canons  to  be  crossed,  a  wire  trolley  may  be 
stretched  and  the  great  logs  carried  over  suspended  from  it. 

In  the  South  a  complicated  machine  called  a  steam  skidder,  Fig. 
27,  equipped  with  drums,  booms,  etc.,  is  much  used  both  for  skidding 
in '  the  logs  and  then  for  loading  them  on  the  cars.  It  is  itself 
mounted  on  a  flat  car. 

An  improvement  on  this  is  the  locomotive  boom  derrick  which  is 
widely  used  both  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  of  late  in  the  Lake  Su- 
perior region.  It  is  a  combined  locomotive,  skidder  and  loader.  Its 
most  unique  feature  is  that  it  can  be  lifted  off  the  track  so  as  to  allow 
flat  cars  to  run  underneath  it.  This  feat  is  accomplished  thus :  A 
device,  which  is  something  like  that  used  in  elevating  the  bodies  of 
coal  wagons,  lifts  the  engine  several  feet  above  the  rails.  Then  steel 
legs,  which  are  curved  outwardly,  are  lowered  until  the  shoes  which 


26 


IIAXDWOTiK    IX    WOOD. 


are  attached  to  them  rest  on  the  outward  end  of  the  railroad  ties. 
The  tniclv  of  the  locomotive  is  then  folded  np  under  it  out  of  the 
way  and  cars  can  run  under  it,  the  curved  legs  giving  plenty  of 
clearance.     The  derrick  attached  is  of  the  breast  type,  the  two  legs 


l"'i<f.  2S      Log  Train.     Humboldt  County,  Calitoriiia. 


being  firmly  fastened.  \\'heii  ancliored  the  eugiiie  can  l)e  used  either 
for  skidding  or  loading.  For  skidding,  there  are  two  eables,  one 
being  run  out  while  the  other  is  being  wound  on  its  drum. 

In  loading,  the  machine  is  located  so  that  the  empty  ear  will  be 
diieetly  in  front  of  it.  and  then  the  logs  are  lifted  up  and  placed  on 
the  car  by  the  derrick.  AMien  the  car  is  loaded  the  machine  can 
either  mow  on  to  the  next  car.  or  pull  it  under  itself  into  p^ace. 
With  the  help  of  four  men  it  can  load  from  I'^S.OOO  to  150,000  feet 
of  timber  in  a  day.  By  means  of  the  cable  it  can  make  up  a  train, 
and  then  by  loweiing  the  truck  and  raising  the  legs  out  of  the  way. 
it  is  converted  into  a  locomotive  and  haids  tbe  train  away  to  the  mill 
oi'  I'ailway  station  at  tJie  rate  of  three  or  four  miles  at  houi'. 

As  forests  are  cut  away  along  the  water  courses,  railways  have  to 
be  resoi'ted  to  more  and  nrore,  Fig.  28.  This  has  had  a  stimulative 
ell'ect  on  the  logging  business,  for  now  the  logger  is  independent  of  the 
snow.  On  account  ol'  the  slee|)  grades  and  sharp  curves  often  necessary 
in  logging  railways,  a  geared  loi'Oiiiotive  is  sonu^times  used,  Fig.  29. 
Jt  can  haul  a  train  of  twenty  loaded  cais  up  a  twelve  per  cent 
grade.  Tbe  geared  engine  has  also  l)cen  used  as  a  substitute  for 
caldc  powci'.  in  "yai'ding"'  operations.     'I'lic  •"turns'"  of  logs  are  di'awn 


LOGGING. 


27 


Fif.  30.    Giant  Raft.     In  the  bai-kfrrouiid  is  a  completed  raft; 
in  the  forejJ-round  a  cradle  m  \\  hich  a  raft  is  being-  built. 


28 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


over  the  ground  between  the  rails,  being  fastened  to  the  rear  of  the 
eno-ine  by  hook  and  cable.  This  has  proved  to  be  a  very  economical 
use  of  power  and  plant. 

Another  method  of  traction  where  the  woodland  is  open  enough 
is  with  a  traction  engine.  The  ones  emi)loycd  have  sixty  to  one 
hundicd  horse  power.  The  great  logs  may  be  jdaced  on  wood  rollers, 
as  a  house  is  when  move(h  or  the  l(\os  may  be  hauled  in  on  a  low 
truck  with  broad  wheels.  Tlu'  •"tractor""  hauls  the  log  direct  to  the 
railway  if  the  (lislaiicc  is  not  t(^o  gieat. 


Fiy.  31.     Snow  Locomotive.     Takes  the  place  of  12  teamsters 
and  12  horses.     Minnesota. 


In  Northeren  Michigan  a  "snow  Nx-oniotive."'  Fig.  31,  is  coming 
into  use,  which  has  tremendous  tractive  powei",  hauling  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  fifty  tons  of  lunibci'  over  snow  or  ice.  It  moves  on 
runnel s.  but  there  is  between  them  a  large  cylinder  anned  with  teeth. 
This  cylinder  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  the  o])erator  as  it  moves 
over  the  suiface  of  the  ground.  The  teeth  catch  in  the  snow  or  ice, 
and  since  the  cyliiulei'  is  heated  l)y  the  exhaust  steam,  it  melts  and 
packs  the  snow  for  the  trucks  following  it.  The  drum  is  six  feet  in 
diameter,  with  walls  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  and  it  weighs  seven 
tons.  It  is  use<l  in  all  sorts  of  jdaees  where  horses  cannot  go.  as  in 
swamps,  and  by  suhstitiding  A\heels  foi-  nmneis  it  has  even  been 
used  on  sand. 

Ill  the  Canadian  lakes  there  has  been  devised  a  (|iieer  cieature 
called  an  "alligator,"  a  small  and  heavily  equijiped  vessel  I'm-  hauling 
the  logs  thru  the  lakes.  When  its  o]ierations  in  one  lake  are  llnislied, 
a  wire  cable  is  taken  ashore  and  made  fast  to  some  tree  or  other  safe 
anchorage,  the  ca])stan  on  its  f(M-ward  deck  is  revolved  liy  steam  and 
the  "alligator""  hauls  itself  out  of  the  water  across  lots  to  the  next 
la]<e  and   beoins  woik   there. 


LOGGING.  29 

The  greatest  improvement  in  water  transportation  is  the  giant 
raft,  Fig.  30.  When  such  a  raft  is  made  up,  logs  of  uniform  length 
are  placed  together,  the  width  of  the  raft  being  from  sixty  to  one 
hundred  feet  and  its  length,  one  thousand  feet  or  more.  It  may  con- 
tain a  million  board  feet  of  timber.  The  different  sections  are  placed 
end  to  end,  and  long  boom  sticks,  i.  e.,  logs  sixty  to  seventy  feet 
long,  are.  placed  around  tliem  to  bind  the  different  sections  together, 
and  finally  the  whole  mass  is  heavily  chained.  Sucli  n  raft  has  been 
towed  across  the  Pacific. 

LOGGING. 
References* : 

River  Lumbering. 

Pinchot,  Primer,  II,  pp.  40-53.       Biuncken.  pp.   70-87. 
White,   Blazed   Trail,   pp.   5-15,       Munn.  Cosmop.,   37:   441. 

25,    38-30,    52-53,    63-65,    72- 

85,  91-99,   113-125,   1.34,   181- 

196,    216-220,   257,   268,    320- 

343,  355,   365  ff. 
For.   Bull,   No.    34,    pp.    33-41.       Roth,   First   Bool-,   pp.    133-174. 

Fox. 
White,  Jan.  Mun.    10:    362.  Hovey-King.   Rer.   of   Ren..   27:    317. 

Hulbert,    Outl.,    76;    801.  -Jones,    Cosmop.    15:    63. 

Wood   Craft,   4:    55.  Price,    World's   Work,   5:    3207. 

Smith,    K.,    World's   Worl:,    7:       For.    Bull.   Xo.    61. 

4435. 
Mechanical   Methods, 

World's  Work,   7:    4435.  Cassier,  20:    443,  April,   '06. 

Oufl.    76:    812.  Cosmop.,   37:    445. 

Briincken.    p.    86.  Rev.  of  Rev.  28:    319. 


'For  general  bibliography  see  page  4. 


('iiAi"n:i;    II. 

-  SAW.AIILLlXCi. 

Tlie  |)i'iiK-i|);il  saws  in  a  mill  are  of  tlnre  Idmls.  the  cireiilav.  Fig. 
32,  the  gang.  Fig.  oo,  and  the  hand.  Fig.  'M.  The  ciieuhir-saw,  tho 
very  rapid,  is  the  most  wasteful  Ijeeause  of  tlie  wide  kerf,  and  of 
course  the  larger  the  saw  the  thicker  it  is  and   the  wider  the  kerf. 

.  '  The  waste  in  sawdust   is  aliont 

one-fifth  of  the  log.  In  order 
to  lessen  this  amount  two 
smaller  saws,  one  hung  directly 
al)()\e  the  other,  have  heen  used. 
One  saws  the  lower  half  of  the 
log  and  the  other  the  u})per 
hair.  In  this  way,  it  is  possihle 
to  cut  veiy  Jai'ge  logs  with  the 
ciiculai'-saw  and  with  less  waste. 
The  circulai'-saw  is  not  a  per- 
fi'ctly  flat  disc-,  hut  when  at  rest 
is  slightly  convex  on  one  side 
and  conca\-e  on  the  other.  This 
fullness  can  he  ])uslied  l)ack  and 
Forth  as  can  the  linttom  of  an 
oil-can.  When  moving  at  a  high 
rate  of  speed,  hdwevcr.  the  saw  flattens  itself  hv  centrifugal  force. 
This  eiiahlcs  it  to  cut  straight  with  gicat   ac-cuiacy. 

A  gang-saw  is  simply  a  series  of  stiaight  saw-hlades  set  in  a  ver- 
tical frauu'.  '^riiis  has  a  recipi'ocating  mot  inn.  enahling  it  to  cut  a 
log  into  a  number  of  ho'irds  at  one  tiuie.  It  has  this  drawl)ack,  tliat 
il  must  cut  the  size  of  luniher  f(U'  which  it  is  set:  that  is,  the  sawyer 
has  no  choice  in  cutliug  tlie  thickness,  hut  it  is  \ciy  economical,  wast- 
ing oidy  one-eighth  of  ihe  log  in  sawdust.  A  special  form  is  the  floor- 
ing gang.  II  consists  of  a  number  of  saws  placed  one  inch  apart, 
"^riiick  |)lanks  ai'c  run  thru   it  to  saw  up  llooring. 

30 


Fig.  32.    Double  Circular-Saw  and  Carruij^e. 


SAWMILLIXG. 


31 


The  band-saw  is  fast  displacing  the  otlier  two,  -wherever  it  can 
be  used.  It  cuts  with  great  rapidity  and  the  kerf  is  narrow.  When 
first  used  ii.  couhl  not  be  depended  upon  to  cut  straight,  but  b}'  util- 
izing the  same 
principle  that 
is  used  in  tlie 
circular-saw,  of 
putting  the  cut- 
ting edge  un- 
der great  ten- 
sion by  making- 
it  s  1  i  g  h  1 1  y 
shorter  than 
the  middle  of 
tJie  saw,  it  now 
cuts  with  great 
accuracy.  Band- 
saws  are  now 
made  up  to  12 
inches  wide,  50 
feet    long,    an  ■  • 

lun  at  the  late  of  10.000  feet  a  minute.  They  are  even  made  with  the 
cutting  teeth  on  both  edges,  so  that  the  log  can  be  sawed  both  going 
and  coming.  This  idea  was  unsuccessful  until  the  invention  of  the 
telescopic  band-mill.  Fig.   35.     In  this  the  entire  mechanism  carry- 


Fig-.  34.    Band-Saw. 


32 


HAXDWOlMv    IX    WOOD. 


in,o-  tlie  wheels  on  which  the 
hiiinl-saw  revolves  can  he  moved 
iij)  and  down,  so  as  to  bring  the 
])()int  where  the  saw  leaves  the 
iipl)er  wheel  as  close  to  the  top 
of  the  different  sized  logs  as 
possil)le. 

The  nsual  modern  mill  is  a 
two  story  hiiilding.  Fig.  37,  built 
at  a  convenient  locality  both  for 
receiving  the  logs  and  for  ship- 
])ing  the  hnnber.  Whether  the 
logs  arrive  by  water  or  by  rail, 
they  are,  if  possible,  stored  in 
a  mill-pond  until  used  in  order 
to  prevent  checking,  discolora- 
tion, decay,  and  worm  attack. 
From  the  pond  they  are  hauled 
up  out  of  the  water  on  to  a  '\jack-ladder,"  by  means  of  an  endless 
chain.   ])rovi(lod    with    saddles   or   spurs   Avhich   engage   the   logs   and 


Fig. 


)5.     Uoiible-Cuixing-  Telescopic   iSand- 
Mill.     Mill  in  raised  position  for 
larjire  log. 


l.ii  1<-L,adder,  with  Endless  i 


SAAVMILLING. 


33 


34 


IIAXDWOKK     IN     WOOD. 


Fig-.  38.     Loy-FlipiJer. 


<!ia\v  tlu'iii  u\)  into  tlio  sec-oiul  stow  on  to  the  h)g  .•slip.  Fig.  3(3. 
After  the  logs  have  entered  the  mill,  thev  are  inspected  for  stones 

lodged  in  the  bark,  and   for  spikes  left  by  the  river  men,  and  then 

measured.  I'nder  the  log- 
sli])  is  tlie  steam  "flipper"' 
oi'  "kickci',"  Fig.  38,  by  means 
of  wliicli  the  sealer  or  his  as- 
^nf  'm^  '  "•- •^''^'^-  ^i'^BmiII'  sistant.  tlirowing  a  lever,  causes 

:^^-  ^p       .  --.  ;'^J||hhp  the  log  to  [)(■  kicked  over  to  one 

side  or  the  other,  on  to  the  log- 
dt<-k.  an  inclined  floor  sloping 
toward  the  saw-can  iage.  Down 
this  the  log  loljs  until  sto])ped 
bv  a  log-stop,  or  log-loatler.  Fig. 
3!l,  a  doul)h'-ai  nu'd  ])rojection. 
which  pieveiits  it  from  lol  ing 
on     the     carriage    till      wanted. 

This  stop   is   also   worki'd    hy   steam.      l>y   letting  the   steam    into  the 

cvlinder  which  contiols  it,  one  log  is  voIUmI  over  on  the  cai'iiage  and 

the  next  one  held.     The  log  on  the  carriage  is  at  once  "dogged. ""  that 

is,  clamped  tight  hy  iion  dogs,  the  carriage  is  set  for  tlu'  proper  cut. 

and   moves  forward   to   the  saw 

which    cuts    otf    the    first    slab. 

The   carriage    is   then    •\uigged" 

or  reversed.  This  operation  off- 
sets  the   carriage   one-eighth   of 

an   inch   so  that  tlie  log  returns 

entirely    dear    of    the    saw.      In 

the   same   wav   two   ov   three    1" 

Ixiai'ds    are   taken    otf.   the    dogs 

are    then    knocked    (Uit,   and    the 

log  canted  o\(M-  half  a  revolu- 
tion.    This  is  done  by  means  ol' 

the   "steam    nigger."    Fig.   4tl,   a 

long,   pel  pcndiculai'  toothed  bar 

which   comes   up  thru   tlie   lloor, 

engages    the    log.    and     lui'ns    it 

over  till   the  sawn  side  comes   up 

auainst     the    knees    of    the    cai'- 


Im','-.  3'i.  Logr-Stop  nnd  Loader.  By  IftiiiiK- 
sleain  into  the  cyliiiiler,  the  projectiiiy  arm 
revolves,  rolliiiir  one  loi,'  over  onto  the  car- 
riatre  and  liol(linf,>-  the  iie.xl  one  till  wanted. 


SAW^IILLING. 


35 


riage.  The  log  is  dogged  again  and  a  second  slab  and  several  boards 
are  taken  off.  The  log  or  "stock"  as  it  is  now  called,  is  10",  13", 
l-i",  or  16"  thick;  the  "nigger"  then  gives  it  a  qnarter-turn,  leav- 
ing it  lying  on  a  sawn  side.  It  is  dogged  again,  and  all  sawn  up 
except  enough  to  make  a  few  boards.  'This  last  piece  is  given  a  half- 
turn,  bringing  the  sawn  side  against  the  knees,  and  it  is  sawn  up. 
Each  board  as 
it  is  sawn  off 
is  thrown  by 
the  board-flip- 
per or  cant-flip- 
per," Fig.  41, 
on  to  the  "live 
rollers,"  which 
take  it  to  the 
next  process. 
Another  1  o  g 
conies  on  the 
carriage  a  n  d 
the  process  is 
repeated. 

The  saw-car- 
riage, Fig.  43. 
i  s  propelled 
forward  and 
back  by  a  pis- 
ton running  in 
a  long  cylinder, 
into  either  end 
of  which  steam 
can  be  turned 
by  the  operator. 
As  the  sawn 
boards  fall  off'  the  log,  they  land  on  "live,"  that  is,  revolving  rol'ers, 
which  carry  them  along  at  the  rate  of  800  to  350  feet  a  minute. 
Stops  are  provided  farther  along  to  stop  the  boards  wherever  Avanted. 
as  at  the  edger,  Fig.  43,  or  the  slasher.     From  the  live  rollers  the 


Fiff.  40.     'i  he  Steam  Nig-g-er.     The  toothed  bar  turns  the  log 
over  into  the  desired  position. 


A  "cant"  is  a  squared  or  partly  squared  log. 


36 


HANDWOUK    IX    AVOOD. 


Fig-.  41.  Steam  Caiil-Flipper. 
Tliis  machine  is  used  to 
move  cants,  timber  or  lumber 
trom  live  rollers  to  g^angs, 
band  resaw  mills,  or  else- 
where. The  timber  is  dis- 
charged upon  skid  rollers, 
as  shown,  or  upon  transfer 
chains 


boards  are  trans- 
ferred automatically, 
Fig.  44,  by  chains 
running  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  rollers 
and  brought  within 
reach  of  the  edger 
man.  About  one- 
third  of  the  boards 
of  a  log  have  rough 
edges,  and  are  called 
"waney."  These  must 
go  thru  the  edger  to 
make  their  edges 
parallel.  The  edger 
man  works  with 
great  speed.  He  sees 
at  once  what  can  be 
made  out  of  a  board, 

places  it  in  position  and  runs  it  thru.  From 
the  edger  the  boards  are  carried  to  the  trim- 
mer, which  cuts  the  length.  The  lumber- 
man's rule  is  to  "cut  so  that  you  can  cut 
again."  The  so-called  16'  logs  are  really  Id' 
6".     Tbe  trimmer.  Fig.   45.  now  trims  these 

boards  to  Ti'  1".  so  that  if  desired  they  can  still  be  cut  again.  The 
trimmer  may  be  set  to  cut  at  any  desired  length 
according  to  tlie  specifications. 

The  l)oards  are  now  graded  as  to  quality 
into  No.  1,  No.  2,  etc..  Fig.  46. 
and  run  out  of  the  mill,  to  be 
stacked  up  in  piles.  Fig.  47.  Big 
timbers  go  directly  from  the  saw 
nil  the  rolls  to  tlie  back  end  of 
ihc  mill,  where  the  first  end  is 
trimmed  liy  a  butting-saw  or  cut- 
ofF-saw  which  swings.  Fig.  48. 
The  tiinhcr  is  then  slioved  along 

Fig.  42.     Log--Carriag-e,   holdinir   ,|uarler<-d         ,)t\     (lend      rolls     illld     tllC     last     did 
lofT  in  position  to  saw. 


SAWMILLING. 


37 


Fig.  43.      Double  Gatigr  Ed^er.      This  machine  trims  olJ  the  rough  edg-e^ 
of  the  "waiiey"  boards  by  means  of  the  four  saws  in  the  main  frame  of  the  machine. 


r  ft: 


^''-'^^-^X  ■■-    n 


Ji^'*% 


Fig-.  44.     Automatic  Steam  Transfer  for  Timber,  Lumber  aud  Slabs. 

The   boards  are   carried  along-  by  tlie   cylinders,   C  C  C,  until  they    hit  the  bumper,  B. 

This  movement  admits  steam   to  the  cylinder,  CY,  which  raises  the  revolving-   chains 

or  skids,  which  transfers  the  stock  sidewise  to  other  live  rollers  as  required. 


38 


HAXDAVORK    JN   WOOD. 


•a>,  ^»^,^A^^^f^•■ 


Fiy.  45.     Automatic  Gang  Luinber-Tiimmer.    It  may  be  set  to  cut  autoiiiatically 
to  any  desired  length. 


Fig.  4(1.    Lumber  Sorting  Slied,  Virginia,  Minnesota 


Fig.  47.     Logs  and   I.unitir. 


SAAVMILLIXG. 


39 


Fig-.  48.     Cut-off-Saw.     This  saw 
trims  the  ends  of  timbers. 


trimmed  by  the  butting-saw  to   a   definite  length   as   sjieeified,   and 

shoved  ont. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  modern  mill  is  its 

speed.     From  the  time  the  log  appears  till  the  last  piece  of  it  goes 

racing   out  of  the  mill,   hardly 
I        more  than  a   minute  may  havo 
ela]:sed. 

A  large  part  of  the  problem 
of  sawmilling  is  the  disposal 
of  the  waste.  The  first  of  these 
is  the  sawdust.  In  all  first 
class  mills,  this  together  with 
shavings  (if  a  planing-mill  is 
coml)ined)  is  burned  for  fuel. 
It  is  sucked  up  from  the  ma- 
chines and  carried  in  large 
tubes  to  the  boiler-room  and 
there  is  mechanically  supplied 
to    the    fires.      The    slabs,    once 

considered    as    waste,   contain   much   material   that    is    now   utilized. 

From  the  live  rolls,  on  which  all  the  material  falls  from  the  main 

band-saw,  the  slabs  are  carried  off  by  transfer  chains,  and  by  another 

set  of  five  rollers  to  the  "slasher,"  Fig.  50,  which  consists  of  a  line 

of     circular-saws     placed     4'     1" 

apart.     This  slasher  cuts  u])  the 

slabs    into    lengths    suitable    for 

lath  or  fence-pickets.  Fig.  49.    Or 

they    can    be    resawn    into     IG" 

lengths  for  shingles  or  fire-wood. 
From  the  "slasher"  the  4'  1" 

lengths  are  carried  on  by  travel- 
ing   platforms,    chains,    etc.,    to 

the  lath-machines,  Fig.  51,  where 

they     are     sawn     up,     counted     as        Fig-.  4<'.     Ten  saw  (.anfr  Lath  Bolter.     This 
^  ^  niachuie  cuts  up  material  leng-thwise 

sawn,  bound   in   bundles  of   100,  imoiaths. 

trimmed  to  exactly  4'  in   length 

and  sent  off  to  be  stored.  The  shingle  bolts  are  picked  off  the  mov- 
ing platforms  by  men  or  boys,  and  sent  to  the  shingle-machine.  Fig. 
52.  where  they  are  sawn   into  shingles   and   dropped   down-stairs  to 


40 


HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 


Fig.  50.     Slab-Slasher.  This  machine  cuts  up  the  slabs  into  leiijjfths  suitable 
for  lath  or  fence-pickets. 


SAWMILLING. 


41 


be  packed.     Shingle-bolts  are  also  made  from  crooked  or  otherwise 
imperfect  logs. 

Of  what  is  left,  a  good  part  goes  into  the  grinder  or  "'liog,''  Fig. 
53,  which  chews  up  all  sorts  of  refuse  into  small  chips  suitable  for 


Figr.  51.  Combination  Lath-Binder 
and  Trimmer.  With  this  macliine  tlie  op- 
erator can  trim  the  bnndles  of  lath,  sinipU' 
bj'  tilting'  the  pacKingr  frame  over  from  him 
causing  the  bundles  to  pass  between  the 
saws,  thereb3-  trimming  both  ends  at  one 
movement. 


Fig.  52.     Hand     Shinsrle-Machine 

This  machine  is  used  in   Sawmills  in  which 

it  is  desired  to  utilize  slabs   and  trimming's 

by  sawing  shingles   therefrom,  or  to   saw 

shingles  from  prepared  bolts. 


fuel  to  suiDplement  the  sawdust  if  necessary.     Band-saws  make  so 
little  dust  and  such  fine  dust  that  this  is  often  necessary. 

If  there  is  any  refuse  that  cannot  be  used  at  all  it  goes  to  the 
scrap-pile,  Fig.  54,  or  to  the  "consumer,"  the  tall  stack  shown  in  Fig. 
37,  see  p.  33. 

Boards  ordinarily  sawn  from  logs  are  "slash-sawn,"  i.  e.,  they 
are  tangential  or  bastard,  each  cut  parallel  to  the  previous  one.  By 
this  process,  only  the  central  boards  would  be  radial  or  "rift"  boards. 

But,  for  a  number  of  reasons,  radial  boards  are  better.  They  warp 
less  because  the  annual  rings  cross  the  board  more  evenly.  Yel- 
low pine  flooring  that  is  rift- 
sawn  is  more  valuable  than 
slash-sawn,  because  the  edge 
of  the  annual  rings  makes  a 
more  even  grain.  Fig.  55.  Where 
slash-grained  flooring  is  used, 
the  boards  should  be  laid  so 
that  the  outside  of  each  board 

will   be   up    in   order  that   the    in-  ^'^,:^l  Edging  Grinder  or  Hog    Itcutsany 

^  kind  of  wood  into  coarse  or  fine  chips 

ner  rings  mav  not  "shell  out."'  suitable  to  be  handled  by 

<^  -  chain  conveyor  or  blower. 


42 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


In  sawing  oak  for  valuable  furniture  or  trim,  the  log  is  first 
^'quartered"  and  then  the  quarters  sawn  up  as  nearly  radially  as  is 
desired.  There  are  various  methods  of  cutting  quarteied  logs,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  5G. 

In  making  staves  for  water-tight  barrels,  it  is  essential  that  they 
be  cut  radially  in  the  log.  in  order  that  the  staves  be  as  non-perme- 
able to  water  as  |)0ssi'ble. 


Fig-.  54.     S.  lan-l'ili-.  OsciUa,  Georgia. 


Fiff.  55.     Slash  Grain  and  Conib-(iraiii  Flooring 


SAWMILLING. 


43 


7- /a 

Fig-.  50.     Methods  of  S  .wing  Quartered  Losrs. 


SAWMILLING. 


Eeferences : * 

Trout,  Gassier  11:    83,  184. 
Woodcraft  5:    5(3.  May  '06. 


■For  giiioral   l)il)liogiapli_v  see  ]\  4. 


44 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


Chapter  III. 
SEASONING. 

The  seasoning  of  wood  is  important  for  several  reasons.  It  re- 
duces weight,  it  increases  strength,  it  prevents  changes  in  volume 
after  it  is  worked  into  shape,  and  it  prevents  checking  and  decay. 
Decay  can  also  he  prevented  hy  suhmergence  and  hiirying,  if  hy  so 
doing  logs  are  kept  from  fungal  attacks.  The  piles  of  the  Swiss 
Lake  dwellings,  which  are  in  a  state  of  good  preservation,  are  of 
jn'ehistoric  age.  Wood  under  water  lasts  longer  than  steel  or  iron 
under  water.  Rut  for  almost  all  purposes  wDod  has  to  l)e  dried  in 
order  to  he  preserved.  The  wood  is  cut  up,  when  green,  to  as  thin 
pieces  as  will  be  convenient  for  its  use  later,  for  the  rate  of  drying- 
depends  largely  upon  the  shape  and  size  of  the  piece,  an  inch  hoard 
drying  more  than  four  times  as  fast  as  a  four  inch  plank,  and  more 
than  twenty  times  as  fast  as  a  ten  inch  timber. 

There  are  various  methods  of  seasoning: 

(T)  Natural  or  air-seasoning  is  the  most  c(unmon,  and  in  some 
respects  the  best.  In  this  method,  the  wood  is  carefully  and  reg- 
ularly piled  in  the  seasoning-yard,  so  as  to  be  protected  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  sun  and  rain,  but  with  air  circulating  freely  on  all  sides 
of  the  boards,  Fig.  47,  see  p.  38.  To  accomplish  this,  "sticking"  is 
employed,  i.  e.,  strips  of  wood  are' placed  crosswise  close  to  the  ends 
and  at  intervals  between  the  boards.  In  this  way  the  weight  of  the 
superposed  boards  tends  to  keep  those  under  them  from  warpirrg.  The 
pile  is  skidded  a  foot  or  two  off  the  grourrd  and  is  protected  above  by  a 
roof  made  of  boards  so  laid  that  the  raiir  wi'l  drain  off. 

Fire-Avood  is  best  dried  rapidly  so  that  it  will  check,  making  air 
spaces  which  facilitate  ignition,  but  luml)er  needs  to  be  slowly  dried 
in  cool  air  so  that  the  fibers  may  accommodate  themselves  to  the 
change  of  form  and  the  wood  check  as  little  as  possible.  Good  air- 
drying  consumes  from  two  to  six  years,  the  longer  the  better. 

45 


46  IIAXDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 

I  (•?)  Kiln-drying  or  hot-air-seasoning  is  a  much  more  rapid  pro- 
cess than  air-seasoning  and  is  now  in  common  use,  Fig.  57.  Tlie 
drying  is  also  more  complete,  for  while  air-dried  wood  retains  from 
10^/c  to  20^,  of  moisture,  kiln-dried  wood  may  have  no  more  than 
S^f  as  it  comes  from  the  kiln.  It  will,  however,  reabsorb  some 
iiioistuie  from  the  air.  wiien  exposed  to  it. 

The  wood  of  conifers,  with  its  very  regular  structure,  dries  and 
shrinks  more  evenly  and  much  more  rapidly  than  the  wood  of  broad- 
leaved  trees,  and  hence  is  often  put  into  the  kiln  without  previous 
air-drying,  and  dried  in  a  week  or  even  less  time. 

Oak  is  the  most  diihcult  wood  to  dry  properly.  When  it  and 
other  hardwoods  are  ra])idly  dried  witlioiit  sutficient  surrounding 
moisture,  the  wood  "■case-hardens,""  tliat  is.  the  outer  part  diies  and 
shrinks  before  the  interior  has  had  a  chance  to  do  the  same,  and  this 
forms  a  sliell  or  case  of  shrunken,  and  often  checked  wood  around 
tlie  interior  which  also  checks  later,  ^"liis  interior  checking  is  called 
lioneycomhing.  Hardwood  lumber  is  commonly  air-dried  from  two 
to  six  months.  l)ef(U'e  being  kiln-dried.  For  the  sake  of  economy  in 
time.  t1ie  tendency  is  to  eliminate  yard-drying,  and  substitute  kiln- 
drying.  Kiln-diying  of  one  inch  oak.  takes  one  or  two  weeks,  quarter- 
sawn  boards  taking  ov.v  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  plain-sawn. 

The  best  method  of  drying  is  that  which  gradually  raises  the  tem- 
perature of  both  the  wood  and  of  tlu'  water  which  it  contains  to  the 
|)oint  at  which  the  di'ying  is  to  take  ])lace.  (lare  is  therefore  taken 
not  to  let  the  surface  become  entirely  dry  before  the  internal  moisture 
is  lieated.  This  is  done  by  retaining  the  moisture  first  vaporized 
about  tlu'  wood,  by  means  of  wet  steam.  When  the  surface  is  made 
peinieah'e  to  moistuii'.  drying  may  take  ])lace  rapidly.  Curtains  of 
canvas  aic  hung  all  aiound  the  lumbei'  (Ui  the  same  ])rinci|)1e  that 
windows  in  newly  plastei'ed  hiiildings  are  hung  with  luuslin.  The 
irioisture  is  al)sorbe(l  on  the  iniu-r  surface  of  the  curtain  and  evap- 
orates from  the  outer  >uiface.  Improvements  in  kiln-drying  are  along 
the  line  of  moist  air  o])eration.  In  common  practice,  howt'ver,  the 
luoist   ail-  |)i'inci|)]e  is  often  lU'glei'ted. 

Tlieic  ai'e  two  methods  in  opei'ation.  tlu'  progressive  method  and 
the  chai'ge  method.  In  the  piogressive,  the  process  is  continuous, 
the  loads  going  in  at  one  end  ol'  the  kiln,  and  out  at  the  other,  the 
temperature  and  the  moisture  being  so  distributed  in  the  kiln,  that 
in  passing  fiom  the  green  to  the  dry  end,  a  load  of  lumber  is  first 


SEASOXIKG.  47 

moistened,  then  heated,  and  finally  dried  out.  In  the  cliarge  system, 
the  process  is  intermittent,  one  charge  being  removed  before  a  new 
one  is  admitted.  This  gives  the  best  results  with  high  grade  lumber 
for  special  uses. 

A  modification  of  hot-air-seasoning  is  that  which  subjects  the 
wood  to  a  moderate  heat  in  a  moist  atmosphere  charged  with  the 
products  of  the  combustion  of  fuel. 

(o)  Small  pieces  of  wood  may  be  effectively  seasoned  by  being 
boiled  in  water  and  then  diied.  Tlie  process  seems  to  consist  of  dis- 
solving out  albuminous  substances  and  thus  allowing  freer  evapora- 
tion.    Its  effect  is  probably  weakening. 

(4)  Soaking  in  water  is  sometimes  used  as  a  good  preparation 
for  air-seasoning.  Previous  soaking  hastens  seasoning.  Eiver  men 
insist  that  tindjer  is  improved  by  rafting.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  let  cypress  logs  soak  in  the  swamps  where  they  grow  for  several 
months  before  they  are  '"mined  out.""  They  are  eargerly  sought  after 
by  joiners  and  carpenters,  because  their  tendency  to  warp  is  lessened. 
Ebony  is  water-soaked  in  the  island  of  Mauritius  as  soon  as  cut. 
Salt  water  renders  wood  harder,  h.eavier,  and  more  durable  and  is 
sometimes  applied  to  sliip  timbers,  but  cannot  be  used  with  timbers 
intended  for  ordinary  ])nrposes,  as  the  presence  of  salt  tends  to  absorl) 
atmospheric  moisture. 

( 5 )  Boiling  in  oil  is  re  sorted  to  for  special  purposes,  both  for 
preservation  and  to  give  strength.  For  example,  the  best  handserews 
are  so  treated.  The  oil  also  prevents  glue  from  sticking,  the  most 
frecpient  cause  of  injury  to  handserews. 

(6)  There  are  a  number  of  "impregnation"'  methods  of  preserv- 
ing timber,  and  their  piactice  is  spreading  rapidly.  Of  the  various 
preservative  processes,  those  using  coal  tar  creosote  and  zinc  chlorid 
have  proved  most  efficient.  The  purpose  is  to  force  the  preservative 
into  the  pores  of  the  wood,  either  by  painting,  soaking,  or  putting  un- 
der pressure.  Such  impregnation  methods  double  or  treble  the  life 
of  railway  ties.  It  is  now  being  used  with  great  success  to  preserve 
electric  wire  poles,  mine-props,  piling,  fence-posts,  etc. 

Wood  preservation  has  three  great  advantages,  it  prolongs  the  life 
of  timbers  in  use,  reduces  their  cost,  and  makes  possible  the  use  of 
species  that  once  were  considered  worthless.  For  example,  the  cheap 
and  abundant  loblolly  pine  can  be  made,  by  preservative  methods,  to 
take  the  place  of  high  priced  long-leaf  pine  for  many  purposes. 


48 


HAXDWOIJK    IX    WOOD. 


PKACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    FOl!    STOKIXG    LU:\IBE1!. 

rnder  the  hasty  metliods  piovalent  in  the  mill,  very  little  wood 
conies  to  the  shop  well  seasoned,  and  it  should  therefore  he  carefulh' 
st<ired  hefore  using,  so  as  to  have  the  fullest  possihle  air  eirenlation 
ai'ound  it.  Wheie  the  boards  are  hirge  enough,  "'sticking"  is  the  best 
nu'thod  of  storage,  i.  e.,  narrow  strips  of  wood  are  placed  at  short 
intervals  between  the  ])ieces  which  are  ])iled  tiat.  The  weight  of  the 
boards  themselves  helps  to  jjrevent  warping.  Boards  set  upright  or 
on  edge  arc  likely  to  be  distoi'ted  soon.  It  is  often  wise  to  press  to- 
gether  with    weights   or   to   clam])   together   with    handscrews   boards 

that  show  a  tendency  to  warp, 
putting  the  two  concave  sides 
together.       Then     the     convex 
side  is  exposed   and   the  l)oard 
may  straighten  tlius:    Fig.  08. 
By  wrapping  uj)  small   boards 
in  ])aper  or  cloth  in  the  inter- 
vals   between    work    on    them, 
they  may  he  ke])t  straight  un- 
til  they  are  assembled. 
Another  precaution  to  take  is  to  be  sure  to  plane  both  sides  of  a 
board  if  either  is  planed,  especially  if  the  board  has  been  exposed  to 
air-drving  for  some  time. 


Fig.  SS.  Clanipiiigr  up  Hoards  (o  Prevent 
Warpiiiy. 


WOOD     yrEASUPiE.ArKXTS. 

T.und)er  is  a  general  terui  for  all  kinds  of  sawn  wood.  I.ogs  ma\ 
be  sawn  into  timber,  that  is,  beams  and  joists,  into  planks,  which 
are  2"  to  4"  thick,  or  into  boai'ds  which  are  from  '4"  to  1-J4"  thick. 
These  may  be  resawn  into  sjiecial  sizes. 

•Lund)er  is  measured  l)y  the  superficial  foot,  whicli  is  a  1)oard  V' 
thick,  12"  wide,  and  12"  long,  so  that  a  board  l"  thick,  (or  "s" 
diessed)  (i"  wide  and  12'  o"  long,  measuics  (i'  1).  M.  (board  measiti'e). 
Koai'ds  ]"  or  moi'c  thick  are  sold  by  the  "i)oard  foot""  whit'h  is  equiva- 
lent to  12"  s(piare  and  I"  thick.  Boards  less  than  1"  thick  are  sold 
by  the  squai'e  foot,  face  measure.  Dressed  hunber  comes  in  sizes  Ys" 
less  than  sawn  lumbei'.     I>ei;idai'  sizes  are; 


SEASOlSriXG 

%" 

dressed  to 

V2 

M" 

dressed  to 

Vs 

1    " 

dressed  to 

Vs' 

1^" 

dressed  to 

IVs' 

11/," 

dressed  to 

Ws' 

2     " 

dressed  to 

iH' 

49 


Any  of  these  inay  be  dressed  down  to  thinner  boards,  or  resawn 
on  a  sj^ecial  band-saw. 

In  ordering  it  is  common  to  give  the  dimensions  wanted,  in  the 
order  of  thickness,  widtli,  and  length,  becanse  tliat  is  the  order  in 
which  dimensions  are  gotten  out.     E.  g. : 

(i  pes.  quar.  oak,  ^"x6"x3'  0" 
2  pes.  qiiar.  oak.  ^"x7i4"xl5" 

If  a  jAece  wanted  is  sliort  tlie  way  tlie  grain  goes,  tlie  order  wonld 
be  the  same,  thus:  ^"xll"  (wide)  x  6"  (long).  That  is,  "long" 
means  the  way  the  grain  runs.  It  is  always  safe  to  specify  in  such  a 
case.  It  is  common  when  small  pieces  are  ordered  to  add  one-quarter 
to  the  cost  for  waste. 

In  large  lots  lumber  is  ordered  thus:  800'  (B.  M.)  whitewood, 
dressed  2  sides  to  J4'\  10"  and  up.  This  means  that  the  width  of  any 
piece  must  not  be  less  than  10 ".  Prices  are  usually  given  per  ''M," 
i.  e.,  per  1000  ft. :  e.  g. :   basswood  may  be  quoted  at  $40.0(1  per  ]M. 

When  thin  Ijoards  are  desired  it  is  often  economical  to  Iniy  inch 
stuff  and  have  it  resawn. 

Some  luml)er  is  also  ordered  by  the  "running'"  or  lineal  foot,  es- 
pecially moldings,  etc.,  or  by  the  piece,  if  there  is  a  standard  size 
as  in  fence-posts,  studs,  etc.  Laths  and  shingles  are  ordered  by  the 
bundle  to  cover  a  certain  area.  1000  4"  shingles  (=-4  bundles)  cover 
110  sq.  ft.  with  4"  weather  exposure.  100  laths  (1  bundle)  each 
}i"xiy2"x4:'  0"  cover  about  150  sq.  ft. 

There  are  several  methods  of  measuring  lumber.  The  general  rule 
is  to  multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  widtli  and  thickness  in  inches 
and  divide  by  12.  thus:  I"x6"xl5'^12=7>4  feet.  The  use  of  the 
Essex  board-measure  and  the  Lumljerman's  board-measure  are  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  4.  pp.  109  and  111. 


5U  HAXDWOKK    IX    WOOD. 


THE    SEASOXIXG    AND    MEASURING    OF    AVOOD. 

EeFEREXCES : * 
SEASOXIXG. 

Fur.   Mull..  Xo.  41.   pp.  .5-12.  von       Boiilgev.   pp.   66-70.    80-88. 

Scliieiik. 
Duiilap.     Wodii     Cntft,     6:      133,       Wood    Cniff.    0:    31.   Nov.    '06. 

Feb.    "07. 
For.     Circ.     Xo.     40.     pp.     10-16,       For.   Circ.  Xo.    13!). 

Herty. 
Baiter,   pp.   3!)-.53.  Afjric.   Yr.  Bk.,   1905,  pp.  455-464. 

JIEASURIXG. 

Siekels,  pp.  22.  29.  Building      Trades      Pocketbook,      pp. 

335,   340.   357. 
C4oss.   p.    12.  Tate,  p.   21. 


'For  general  bibliiii>raph3'  see  p.  4. 


Chapter  IV. 

WOOD  HAND  TOOLS. 

The  hand  tools  in  common  use  in  woodworking  shops  may,  for 
convenience,  he  divided  into  the  following  classes:  1,  Cutting;  2, 
Boring;  3,  Chopping;  4,  Scraping;  5,  Pounding;  G,  Holding;  7, 
Measuring  and  Marking;    8,  Sharpening;    9,  Cleaning. 

1.    CUTTING    TOOLS. 

The  most  j^rimitive  as  well  as  the  simplest  of  a  1  tools  for  the 
dividing  of  wood  into  parts,  is  the  Avedge.  The  wedge  does  not  even 
cut  the  wood,  but  only  crushes  enough  of  it  with  its  edge  to  allow 
its  main  body  to  split  the  wood  apart.  As  soon  as  the  split  has  be- 
gun, the  edge  of  the  wedge  serves  no  further  purpose,  but  the  sides 
bear  against  the  split  surfaces  of  the  wood.  The  split  runs  ahead  of 
the  wedge  as  it  is  driven  along  until  the  piece  is  divided. 

It  was  by  means  of  the  wedge  that  primitive  people  obtained 
slabs  of  wood,  and  the  great  change  from-  primitive  to  civilized  meth- 
ods in  manipulating  wood  consists  in  the  substitution  of  cutting  for 
splitting,  of  edge  tools  for  the  wedge.  The  wedge  follows  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  but  the  edge  tool  can  follow  a  line  determined  by  the 
worker.  The  edge  is  a  refinement  and  improvement  upon  the  wedge 
and  enables  the  worker  to  be  somewhat  independent  of  the  natural 
grain  of  the  wood. 

In  general,  it  nuiy  be  said  that  the  function  of  all  cutting  tools 
is  to  separate  one  portion  of  material  from  another  along  a  definite 
path.  All  such  tools  act,  first,  by  the  keen  edge  dividing  the  material 
into  two  parts ;  second,  by  the  wedge  or  the  l)lade  forcing  these  two 
portions  apart.  If  a  true  continuous  cut  is  to  be  made,  both  of  these 
actions  must  occur  together.  The  edge  must  be  sharp  enough  to 
enter  between  the  small  particles  of  material,  cutting  without  bruising 
them,  and  the  blade  of  the  tool  must  constantly  force  apart  the  two 
portions  in  order  that  the  cutting  action  of  the  edge  may  continue. 

The  action  of  an  ax  in  splitting  wood  is  not  a  true  cut,  for  only 

51 


52 


lIANDWOIiK    IX    WOOD. 


Wedye  Action. 


Fiyr.  t)0 
Edtre  Action. 


the  second  process  is  taking  place,  Fig.  59.  The  split  which  opens 
in  front  of  the  cutting  edge  anticipates  its  cutting  and  therefore  the^ 
surfaces  of  the  opening  are  longh  and  torn. 

When  a  knife  or  chisel  is 
pressed  into  a  i)iece  of  wood  at 
right  angles  to  the  grain,  and 
at  some  distance  from  the  end 
of  the  wood,  as  in  Fig.  GO,  a 
(•(nitiiuioiis  cutting  action  is 
])revented,  because  soon  the 
hhide  cannot  force  apart  the 
sides  of  the  cut  made  by  the 
advancing  edge,  and  the  knife 
is  brought  to  rest.  In  this  case, 
it  is  practically  only  the  first  action  which  has  taken  place. 

Both  the  actions,  the  cutting  and  the  splitting,  must  take  place 
together  to  produce  a  true  continuous  cut.  The  edge  must  always  be 
in  contact  with  the  solid  material,  and  the  blade  must  always  be 
pushing  aside  the  portions  which  ha-\e  been  cut.  This  can  ha[)i)en 
oidy  Avhen  the  material  on  one  side  of  the  blade  is  thin  enough  and 
weak  enough  to  Ije  readily  bent  out  of  the  way  without  opening  a, 
sjdit  in  fi'ont  of  the  cutting  edge.  This  cutting  action  may  take 
|)lace  either  fllong  the  grain.  Fig.  (il,  or  across  it.  Fig.  iVi. 

The   liending   aside   of   the    shaving   will    require    less    force    the 
smaller  the  taper  of  the  wedge.     On  the  other  hand,  the  wedge  must 
be  strong  enough  to  sustain  the  Ijending  resistance  and  also  to  sup- 
])oit  the  cutting  edge.     In  other 
woi'ds,  the  more  acute  the  cut- 
ting edge,  the  easier  the  work, 
and  hence  the  wedge  is  made  as 
thin      as      is      consistent      with 
sti'cngtli.      This    vai'ies    all    the 
wav    finin    hollow    ground     I'az- 
ors    to    cold-chisels.      For    soft 
wood,     the    cutting    angle     (or 
bevel,     oi'     l)ezel )      of     chisels. 

gouges  and  plane-irons,  is  small,  even  as  low  as  20°;  foi'  hard  wood, 
it  must  be  .greatei-.  For  metals,  it  varies  from  5-t°  for  wrought  ii<)u 
to  (50°  for  trun  metal. 


Fig-.  61  Fig-.  62 

Edge  and  W^edge  Ac-     Edge  and  Wedge  Ac- 
tion With  the  Grain,     tion  Across  the  Grain 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


53 


Ordinarily  a  cutting  tool  should  be  so  applied  that  the  face  near- 
est the  material  lies  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  direction  of  the  cut 
desired,  sufficient  clearance  being  necessary  to  insure  contact  of  the 
actual  edge. 

There  are  two  methods  of  using  edge  tools :  one,  the  chisel  oi- 
straight  cut,  l^y  direct  pressure;    the  other,  the  knife  or  sliding  cut. 

The  straight  cut.  Fig.  63,  takes  place 
when  the  tool  is  moved  into  the  mate- 
rial at  right  angles  to  the  cutting  edge. 
Examples  are :  the  action  of  metal- 
working  tools  and  planing  machines, 
rip-sawing,  turning,  planing  (when  the 
plane  is  held  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the 
board  being  planed),  and  chiseling, 
when  the  chisel  is  pushed  directly  in 
line  with  its  length. 

The  knife  or  sliding  cut.  Fig.  64, 
takes  place  Avhen  the  tool  is  moved  for- 
ward oblicjuely  to  its  cutting  edge, 
either  along  or  across  the  grain.  It  is 
well  illustrated  in  cutting  soft  mate- 
rials, such  as  l)read.  meat,  rubber,  cork, 

etc.  If  is  an  advantage  in  delicate  chiseling  and  gouging.  That  tliis 
sliding  action  is  easier  than  the  straight  pressure  can  easily  be  proved 
with  a  penknife  on  thin  Avood,  or  by  planing  with  the  plane  held  at 
an  angle  to,  rather  than  in  line  with,  the  direction  of  the  planing 
motion.  The  edge  of  the  cutter  then  sHdes  into  the  material. 
The  reason  Avhy  the  sliding  cut  is  easier,  is  partly  because  the  angle 
of  the  bevel  with  tlie  wood  is  reduced  by  holding  the  tool  obliquely, 
and  partly  because  even  the  sharpest  cutting  edge  is  notched  with 
'very  fine  teeth  all  along  its  edge  so  that  in  the  sliding  cut  it  acts 
like  a  saw.  In  an  auger-lht.  both  methods  of  cutting  take  place  at 
once.  The  scoring  nib  cuts  with  a  sliding  cut,  while  the  cutting  lip 
is  thrust  directly  into  the  Avood. 

The  chisel  and  the  knife,  one  Avith  the  edge  on  the  end,  and  the 
other  Avith  the  edge  on  the  side,  are  the  original  forms  of  all  modern 
cutting  tools. 

The  chisel  Avas  at  first  only  a  chi])ped  stone,  then  it  came  to  be  a 
around  stone,  later  it  was  made  of  bronze,  and  still  later  of  iron,  and 


54 


IJAXDWORK    IN     WOOD. 


Fiii-.  05.     Firmer-Chisel. 


now  it  is  made  of  steel.  In  its  early  foini  it  is  known  by  paleon- 
tologists as  a  celt,  and  at  first  had  no  handle,  but  later  developed 
into  the  ax  and  adze  for  chopping  and  hewing,  and  the  chisel  for 
cuts  made  by  driving  and  paring.  It  is  quite  likely  that  the  celt 
itself  was  simply  a  development  of  the  wedge. 

In  the  modern  chisel,  all  the  grinding  is  done  on  one  side.  This 
constitutes  the  essential  feature  of  tbe  chisel,  namely,  that  the  back 
of  tlie  blade  is  kept  perfectly  flat  and  the  face  is  ground  to  a  bevel. 
Blades  vary  in  width  fi'om  1  /  IG  inch  to  2  inches.  Xext  to  the  blade 
on  the  end  of  which  is  the  cutting  edge,  is  the  shank.  Fig.  65.    Xext, 

as  in  socketed 
chisels,  there 
is  the  socket 
to  i-eceive  the 
handle,  or,  in 
tanged  chisels, 
a  shoulder  and 
four  -  sided 
tang  which  is 
driven  into 
the  handle,  which  is  bound  at  its  lower  end  by  a  ferrule.  The  handle 
is  usually  nuide  of  ai)])le  wood. 

The  most  familiar  I'orm  is  the  pniier-clnscl .  Fig.  (iT),  Avhich  is  said 
to  get  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  is  firmer  or  stiffer  than  the 
paring-chisel.  (See  below.)  The  firmer- 
chisel  is  a  general  utility  tool,  being 
suited  for  hand  pressure  or  mallet 
pounding,  foi'  paring  or  for  light  mor- 
tising. 

Different  varieties  of  chisels  are 
named:  (1)  according  to  their  uses;  as 
paring-chisels,  framing-chisels,  mortise- 
chisels,  carving-chisels,  turning-chisels, 
etc. 

The  jjtiriiifj-rliisc].  Fig.  GG,  lias  a 
lumdle  speciallv  slia])ed  to  give  control 
over  iis  movements,  and  a  long  tbin 
l)lade,  wbich  in  the  best  I'orm  is  bev;'led 
on  tbe  two  edges  to  facilitate  gi'oovin». 


Itr-r 


Fi«-.  <>('  Fifi-.  I)"  Fifr.  08 

Paring'-      Framing--    Mortise- 
Chisel.         Chisel.         Chisel. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


55 


■ 

■ 

m 

3 

■ 

^M 

W-^ 

iml 

I 

% 

^ 

P 

■"^ 

■ 

i 

HHIk* 

^^ 

1 

It  is  intended  only  for  steady  pressure  with  the  hand  and  not  for  use 
with  a  mallet. 

The  framing-chisel.  Fig.  67,  is  thick  and  heavy  and  was  formerly 
much  used  in  house  framing.  It  is  usually  made  with  the  handle 
fitting  into  a  socket  on  the  shank,  in  order  to  withstand  the  shock  of 
heavy  blows  from  the  mallet. 

The  mortise-chisel.  Fig.  68, 
is  made  abnormally  thick  to 
give  the  stiffness  necessary  for 
levering  the  waste  out  of 
mortises. 

(2)  Chisels  are  also  named 
according  to  their  shapes : 
as,  skew-chisels,  corner-chisels, 
round-nosed  chisels,   etc. 

The  angle  of  the  bevel  of  a 
chisel  is  determined  Ijy  the  kind 
of  wood  for  which  it  is  most 
used,  hard  wood  requiring  a 
wider  angle  than  soft  wood,  in 
order  to  support  the  edge.     For 

ordinary  work,  the  bevel  is  correctly  ground  to  an  angle  of  about  30". 
The  chisel  is  a  necessary  tool  in  making  almost  every  kind  of  joint. 
It  may  almost  be  said  that  one  mark  of  a  good  workman  is  his  pref- 
erence for  the  chisel.  Indeed  an  excellent  motto  for  the  woodworker 
is :    "When  in  doubt,  use  a  chisel". 

In  general,  there  are  two  uses  for  the  chisel  (1),  when  it  is  driven 
by  a  push  with  the  hand,  as  in  paring,  and  (2),  when  it  is  driven 
by  blows  of  a  nuillet,  as  in  digging  mortises. 

In  relation  to  the  grain  of  the  wood,  it  is  used  in  three  directions : 
(1)  longitudinally,  that  is  with  the  grain,  called  paring;  (2)  laterally, 
across  the  surface,  called  cutting  sidewise ;  (3)  transversely,  that  is 
across  the  end,  called  cutting  end-wood. 

1.  Paring.  To  remove  shavings  rapid'y,  the  chisel  is  held  flat 
side  up,  the  handle  grasped  by  the  right  hand,  with  the  thumb 
pointing  toward  the  shank,  and  the  blade  held  in  the  left  hand,  as 
in  Fig.  69.  Held  in  this  way  great  control  can  be  exerted  and  much 
force  applied.  For  paring  the  surface  as  fiat  and  smooth  as  possible, 
the  chisel  should  be  reversed,  that  is,  held  so  that  the  fiat  side  will 


Fig-  69.     Paring-  With  a  Chisel. 


56 


IIAXDWOBK    IX    WOOD. 


act  as  a  guide.  Held  in  tins  way  the  rliisel  has  no  equal  for  paring 
except  the  plane.  Paring  with  the  chisel  is  the  method  used  in 
cutting  sto])  chaiufers.      (See  p.   185,  Chapter  VIII.)      By  holding 

the  cutting  edge  ob'iquely  to 
the  direction  of  the  grain  and 
of  the  cut,  the  etfective  "sliding 
cut"  is  ol)tained.  Fiff-  <>-!:. 


Fiff.  70     ChiseliiifT  Out  a  Oadi 
(First  Step"). 


Fi-r.  71.  Chiseling' Out  a  Dado 
(Second  Step). 


2.  In  si<lrirls('  rhisi-liin/  the  chisel  is  held  in  the  same  umnner  as 
]>aring.  A  tvpical  foiui  of  sidewise  chiseling  is  the  cutting  out 
a  dado,  Fig.  TO.     The  work  may  l)e  ])laced  im  the  bench-hook  or 

In-Ill  ill  the  \ise.  with  the  side  up 
fi'oui  which  the  gi()(j\'e  is  to  be  cut. 
'I'lii'  chisi'l  is  pushed  dii'ectly  across 
the  gi'aiu,  the  blade  being  somewhat 
inclined  to  the  upjjcr  surface  so  as 
to  cut  off  a  corner  next  the  saw 
keif.  After  a  few  cuts  thus  made 
with  the  chisel  incline(l  alternately 
both  ways,  the  ii<lge  thus  formed  is 
taken  otf.  Fig.  ^1.  In  this  way  the 
sill  face  is  lowei'cd  to  the  required 
(lc|i|h.  If  iiioic  force  he  reipiired. 
the  |ialni  of  the  haml  uiay  be  useil 
as  a    mallet. 

;>.  In  clilscliiif/  ciid-irood,  it  is 
well,  if  |)ossil»'e,  to  rest  the  piece  to 
he  triiMiiied  Hat  on  the  cutting  board 
or  on  a  ])iece  of  waste  wood.  Work 
done  in  this  way  is  often  calle(l  ])er- 
liendicular  chiseling.  Fig.  "]'!.  The 
handle  is  grasped   in  the  right  hand. 


Fit;-.  72.     Perpendicular  Chisclint 


WOOD    IIAXD   TOOLS. 


57 


thumb  up,  while  the  blade  of  the  chisel  passes  between  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the  back  of  which  rests  on  the  work  and 
holds  it  in  place.  As  the  right  hand  pushes  the  chisel  downwards  the 
thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand  control  its  motion.  When  chis- 
eling it  is  well  to  stand  so  as  to  look  along 
the  line  being  cut.  Incline  the  chisel  to- 
ward you,  and  use  the  near  part  of  the 
cutting  edge  for  a  guide  and  the  farther 
corner  for  cutting,  pushing  the  handle  both 
down  and  forward  at  the  same  time,  Fig. 
T3.  Or,  by  pushing  the  chisel  sidewise  with 
the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  at  the  same 
time  that  the  right  hand  ])ushos  it  down- 
ward, the  effective  sliding  cut  is  obtained. 
End  chiseling  requires  considerable 
force    and    therefore    onlv    thin    shavings        Fig-.  73.   chiseUng- End  wood. 


Fig-.  74.     Pariiijtr  a  Corner  Round 


the  work  down  tight  with  a  handscrew 
to  a  perfectly  smooth  cutting  board.  It 
is  often  advisable  however,  to  set  the 
piece  upright  in  the  vise  and  pare  off 
thin  shavings  horizontally.  Fig.  74.  In 
rounding  a  corner,  both  this  and  per- 
pendicular chiseling  are  common  meth- 
ods. In  both  cases  care  should  be  taken 
to  cut  from  the  side  toward  the  end 
and  not  into  the  grain,  lest  the  piece 
S]ilit.   Fiar.   75.    In   horizontal   end   par- 


should  be  cut  off  at  a 
time.  Or  the  mallet  may 
be  used  with  caution.  In 
order  to  leave  a  smooth 
surface  the  chisel  must 
be  very  sharp.  Even  then 
the  lower  arris  (corner) 
is  likely  to  be  splin- 
tered oft'.  This  can  be 
prevented    l)y   clamping 


Fig-.  75.    Rig-ht  and  Wrong-  Ways 
of  Perpendicular  ChiseUng-. 


58 


IIAXDUORK    IX    WOOD. 


ing.  Fig.  74,  in  order  to  prevent  splint- 
tering,  it  is  well  to  trim  down  the  arrises 
diagonally  to  the  line  and  then  to  re- 
duce the  rest  of  the  end  surface. 

In  all  hand  chiseling,  it  is  a  wise 
])recaution  not  to  try  to  cut  out  much 
material  at  each  stroke  hut  to  work 
back  gradually  to  the  line. 

A  typical  foim  of  mallet  chiseling  is 
the  digging  of  a  mortise.  Fig.  76.  (Sec 
alsii  ]).  .'iii.)  The  chisel  is  held  perpen- 
dicular ill  the  left  hand,  while  the  right 
hand  drives  hlows  with  the  inal'et.  The 
haiumer  should  never  he  used.  (See 
mallet.  ]>.  iMi. )  By  rocking  the  chisel 
and  at  the  same  time  giving  it  a  twisting 
motion  while  the  edge  is  kept  on  the 
wood,  the  edge  can  he  stejiped  to  the 
exact  ])]ace  desired.  Care  sliould  he 
taken  to  work  hack  to  the  lines  gradu- 
ally, to  cut  only  ])art  way  thru  from 
each  sidi'  (in  the  case  of  a  thru  mor- 
tise-and-tenon ) .  and  to  keep  the  cut 
faces  perpendicular  to  the  surfaces. 
In  sharpening  a  chisel  it  is  of  first  importance  that  the  hack  be 

kept    peifectly    flat.      The    l)evel    is    first    giound    on    the    grindstone 

to   an   angle   of   about    20°. 

and    great    care    should    he 

taken     to     keep     the     edge 

straight  and  at  right  angles 

to  the  sides  of  the  blade. 

After  grinding  it  is  nec- 
essary   to    whet    the    chisel 

and  other  edged  tools.    (See 

jilso  under  oilstones,  p.  121.) 

First      see     that     there     is 

]»leiity   of   oil    on    the   stone. 

If  an  iron  box  be  used,  Fig. 

7T.  the  oil  is  obtained  sim- 

iih     l)v    liirning    tlie    stone  ^.    ..     ,,  ,  „,       „., 

■^  ^'-'  ^^ '■' ting- a  Plane-Bit. 


Fig.  76.     Mallet  Chiselin^r.     The  Piece 

is  Clamped   Down  on   die  Bench 

With  the  Bench  Hoi>U. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


59 


Fig.  78.     GrindiniLr  Aiig-le,  20"; 
Whetting-  Angle,  25". 


over,  for  it  rests  on  a  pad  of  felt  which  is  kept  wet  with  kerosene. 
Place  the  beveled  edge  flat  on  the  stone,  feeling  to  see  if  it  does 

lie  flat,  then  tip  np  the  chisel  and  rub  it  at  an  angle  slightly  more 

■obtuse  than  that  which  it  was  ground,  Fig.  78.     The  more  nearly  the 

chisel  can  be  whetted  at  the  an- 
gle at  which  it  was  ground  the 
better.  In  rubbing,  use  as 
much  of  the  stone  as  possible, 
so  as  to  wear  it  down  evenly. 
The  motion  may  be  back  and 
forth  or  spiral,  but  in  either 
case  it  should  be  steady  and  not 

rocking.     This  whetting  tuins  a  light  wire  edge  over  on  the  flat  side. 

In  order  to  remove  this  wire  edge,  the  back  of  the  chisel,  that  is,  the 

straight,  unbeveled  side,  is  held  perfectly  flat  on  the  whetstone  and 

rubbed,  then  it  is  turned  over  and  the  l)evel  rubbed  again  on  the  stone. 

It  is  necessary  to  leverse  the  chisel  in  this  way  a  nund^er  of  times,  in 

order  to  remove  the  wire  e(]ge,  but  the  chisel  should  never  ))e  tipped 

so  as  to  put  any  bevel  at  all  on  its  flat  side.     Finally,  the  edge  is 

touched  up  (stropped)   by  being  drawn  over  a  piece  of  leather  a  few 

times,  first  on  one  side,  then  on  the  other,  still   continuing  to  hold 

the  chisel  so  as  to  keep  the  bevel  perfect. 

To  test  the  sharpness  of  a  whetted  edge, 

draw  the  tip  of  the  finger  or  thumb  lightly 

along  it,  Fig.  79.     If  the  edge  be  dull,  it  will 

feel  smooth;    if  it  be  sharp,  and   if  care  be 

taken,    it    will    score    the    skin    a    little,    not 

enough  to  cut  thru,  but  just  enough  to  be  felt. 
The  gouge  is  a  form  of  chisel,  the  blade 

of    which    is    concave,    and    hence    the    edge 

curved.     When  the  bevel   is   on  the   outside, 

the  common  form,  it  is  called  an  outside  bevel 

gouge  or  simply  a  "gouge,"  Fig.  80 ;    if  the 

bevel  is  on  the  inside,  it  is  called  an  inside 

bevel,  or  inside  ground,  or  scribing-gouge,  or  paring-gouge.  Fig.  81.' 


Pig.  79.  Testing  the  Sliarpness 
of  a  Chisel. 


^Another  confusing  nomenclatui'e  (Goss)  gives  the  name  "inside  gouges'" 
to  those  with  the  cutting  edge  on  the  inside,  and  "outside  gouges"  to  those 
with  the  cutting  edye  on  the  outside. 


Fin.  m  FiiLT.  « 

FirniiM-  Inside 

(iougeOut-  Bevel 

side  Bevel.  Goiifre. 


hO  IIAXDWOBK    IN    WOOD. 

('ar\in,L;-  tools  me,  properly  speaking,  all 
cliiscls.  and  are  of  different  shapes  for  facility  in 
r;iv\ing. 

Vov  oi'diiiai'v  gouging.  Fig.  8'3,  the  blade  is 
,L;ri|i|)iMl  lii'inly  by  the  left  hand  with  the  knuck- 
les II]).  so  tbat  a  strong  c-oiiti-ol  can  be  exerted 
ovci'  it.  The  g<nige  is  manipulated  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  cliisel,  and  like  the  chisel  it  is 
used   longitudinally,   laterally,  and  transversely. 

In  working  with  tbe  grain,  by  twisting  the 
Made  on  its  axis  as  it  moves  forward,  (h^-licate 
|iaring  cuts  may  l)e  made.  Tins  is  |)articularly 
necessary  in  working  cioss-grained  wood,  and  is 
a  good  illustration  of  the  advantage  of  the  slid- 
ing cut. 

in  gouging  out  bioad  surfaces  like  trays  or 
saddle  seats  it   will   be    found   of  gi'cat  advantage 

to  work  laterally,  tbat  is  across  tbe  surface,  especially  in  even  grained 

woods  as  sweet  gum.     Tlie  tool  is  not  so  lik'ely  to  sli])  off  and  run  in 

as  when  working  witli  tbe  grain. 

The   ti'ouge  that  is  comnuuily   rist'(|    foi'  cutting  c(uica\('   outlines 

on  end  gi'ain,  is  the  inside  bevel  gouge.     Like  tbe  cbisel   in  cutting 

convex    outlines,   it   is   pushed    or    driven    ])erpendicu'arly    thru    the 

wood  laid   Hat  on   a  cutting  l)oard  on  tbe  bencb.  as   in  ])erpendicular 

cbiseling.  Fig.  Tv,  p.  -^'i. 

Tn  sbarjjening  an  outside  bevel  g(nige,  tlu'  main  bevel  is  obtained 

on  tbe  grindstone,  caic  being  taken  to  keep  the  gouge  rocking  on  its 

axis,  so  as  to  get  an   e\en  cuive. 

Tt    is    tlien    wbetted    on    tbe    Hat 

side   of   a.  sli])st<uie.    Fig.   S^i,  the 

bevel     already     ol)taine(l     on     tbe 

gi'indstone    lieing    made    slightly 

mole  obtuse  at   tbe  edge.      A  good 

iiietbod    is   to   rock   tbe   gouge   cm 

its  axis  with   tbe  left  bamh  while 

ihe    slipstone     belli     ill     tbe     rioht 

band  is  rultbed  l)ac]<  and  forlb  on 

tbe  edge.     Tbeii   tbe  conca\'e  side 

is  rubbed    on    tbe    round   ed^'e   of 


Fig.  82.     Goiitrinj,'. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


61 


the  slipstone,  care  being  taken 

to  avoid  putting  a  bevel  on  it. 

Inside  bevel  gouges  need  to  be 

ground  on   a  carborundum   or 

other  revolving  stone  having  a 

round  edge.     The  outfit  of  the 

agacite  grinder,    (Fig.  224,  p. 

120),    contains    one    of    these 

stones.        The     whetting,     of 

course,  is  the  reverse  of  that 

on  the  outside  bevel  gouge. 
The  knife  differs  from  the 

chisel  in  two  respects,  (1)  the 

edge  is  along  the  side  instead 

of  the  end,  and   (2)    it  has  a 

two-beveled  edge.     Knives  are 

sometimes  made  with  one  side 

flat  for  certain  kinds  of  paring  work,  but  these  are  uncommon.     The 

two-beveled  edge  is  an  advantage  to  the  worker  in  enabling  him  to 
cut  into  the  wood  at  any  angle,  but  it  is  a  disadvan- 
tage in  that  it  is  incapable  of  snaking  flat  surfaces. 
The  knife  is  particularly  valuable  in  woodwork 
for  scoring  and  for  certain  emergencies.  Tlie  sloyd 
knife.  Fig.  84.  is  a  tool  likely  to  be. misused  in  the 
liands  of  small  children,  but  when  sharp  and  in 
strong  hands,  has  numy  valual)le  uses.  A  conveni- 
ent size  has  a  2^  inch  blade.  When  grinding  and 
whetting  a  knife,  the  fact  that  both  sides  are  beveled 
alik'e  should  l)e  kept  in  UMud. 


Fi<r.  83.     WhettinjT  a  Goua-e. 


85.    Draw-Knife. 


The  draw-hnife,  Fig.  85,  is  ground  like  a  chisel,  with  the  bevel 
onlv  on  one  side,  but  the  edge  is  along  the  side  like  a  knife.    Instead 


62 


IIANDAVOKK    IX    WOOD. 


of  being  pushed  into  the  wood,  like  a  chisel,  it  is  drawn  into  it  by  the 
handles  which  project  in  advance  of  the  cutting  edge.  The  handles 
are  sonietiiiies  made  to  fold  over  the  edge,  and  thus  i)rotect  it  when 
not  in  use.  The  s\7.r  is  indicated  by  tlic  length  of  the  cutting 
edge.  It  is  j)a]-ticularly  useful  in  icducing  narrow  surfaces  and  in 
slicing  off  large  jiieces.  but  it  is  liable  to  split  rather  tbaii  cut  the 
wood. 


SAWS. 


Fig-.  SO     H.ind  Saw. 


The  object  of  the  saw  is  to  cut  thru 
a  piece  of  material  along  a  determined 
line.  Its  etliciency  depends  upon  (1) 
tbe  narrowness  of  the  saw  cut  or  "kerf," 
and  C^)  u])on  the  force  required  to  drive 
it  thru  the  material.  The  thinner  the  l)lade,  the  less  material  will  be 
cut  out  and  wasted,  and  the  less  force  will  have  to  be  applied.  In 
order  to  have  the  saw  as  thin  as  possiljle,  almost  all  the  peo])le  of 
the  world,  except  the  Anglo  Saxons,  have  saws  that  cut  when  they 
are  ])ulle(l  toward  the  worker.  Tbe  blade  is  in  tension  while  cutting 
and  in  compression  only  when  being  returned  for  a  new  cut.  Gei'man 
carpenters  use  a  saw  like  oui'  turning-saw.  English  and  .Vmericans 
have  developed  the  saw  on  the  o|)posite  prinei])le,  namely,  that  it 
should  cut  on  the  ])usliing  stroke.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  crosscut- 
saw  cuts  somewhat  on  the  liack  stroke.  The  pusbing  stioke  necessi- 
tates a  thickening  of  tbe  blade  sufTicient  to  ]U'event  buckling, — a  not 
uncommon  oceurrenee  in  tbe  bands  (d'  a  no\iee.  in  spite  of  this  thick- 
ening. l)Ut  tho  this  rc(piires  more  I'oree.  and  involves  more  waste, 
there  ai'e  the  compi'usations  tliat  tbe  ai-m  can  exert  moi'e  ])rcssure  in 
]mshing  than  in  ]udling.  especially  when  the  worker  stands  upright 
oi'  stoops  oYvv  his  work,  and  tbe  stilVei'  wide  blade  acts  as  a  guide  to 
the  sawver.  Each  method  has  its  advantages.  Wbatevei'  may  be  true 
of  hand-saws,  in  macbine-saws  the  tension  method,  as  illustrated  by 
the  gang-saw  and  tbe  band-saw.  is  steadily  dispbu-ing  tbe  eompies- 
sion  metliod  utilized  in  the  circular-saw.  ^lany  kinds  of  work,  how- 
ever, can  be  done  only  on  tbe  circular-saw. 

In  oi'der  to  dimiinsb  tbe  ilisadx  antages  of  tbe  tbi-usting  sti'oke,  the 
modern  band-saw.  |-'ig.  Sli.  lias  been  gradually  impi'oved  as  the  re- 
sult of  miicb  experience  and  ibougbt.  'I'be  outline  oT  ibe  blade  is 
tajieied    in    widtli    From    bandle    to    point  ;     it    is   tbicker   also   at    the 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS.  63 

heel  (the  handle  end)  than  at  the  point;  its  thickness  also  tapers 
from  the  teeth  to  the  back.  All  these  tapers  gives  stiffness  where 
it  is  most  needed.  It  is  made  wide  for  the  sake  of  giving  stead- 
iness in  sawing.  The  fact  that  it  is  thinner  at  the  back  than  along 
the  teeth  gives  it  clearance  in  passing  back  and  forth  in  the  kerf,  but 
the  friction  is  still  great,  especally  in  sawing  soft  or  damp  wood.  To 
avoid  this  l)inding  still  further,  the  teeth  are  "set"  alternately  one  to 
one  side  and  the  next  to  the  other,  and  so  on. 


rc    r    i: — r — 1^    r   "^^    r    "^ — p 

A 


A' 


|%3^/M/y55ACvNVV5VW\!V| 


Fig.  87.    Rip  Saw  Teeth:     A  edf^e  view,  B-side  view,  C  cross-section. 
Crosscut-Saw  Teeth:     A'  -edge  view,  B'  -side  view,  C  -cross-section. 

The  size  of  saws  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  blade  in  inches. 
The  coarseness  of  the  teeth  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  "points"  to 
the  inch.  "Points"  should  not  be  confused  with  teeth  as  there  is 
always  one  more  point  per  inch  than  tliere  are  teeth.  For  example,  a 
five  point  rip-saw  has  five  points  to  the  inch  but  only  four  full  teeth, 
Fig.  87.  Eip-saws  lun  from  4  to  7  points  per  inch;  crosscut-saws 
from  6  to  12  points  per  inch. 

In  general,  saws  are  of  two  kinds,  rip-saws  and  crosscut-saws. 

The  rip-saw.  Fig.  87,  may  he  thought  of  as  a  series  of  chisels  set 
in  two  parallel  rows  which  overlap  each  other,  for  each  tooth  is  filed 
to  a  sharp  edge  which,  at  each  stroke,  chisels  off  a  small  paiticle  from 
the  end  of  the  wood  fibers. 

The  shape  of  the  teeth  is  the  result  of  experience  in  uniting  a 
number  of  factors:  as,  strength  of  the  individual  tooth,  the  acuteness 
of  the  cutting  angle,  and  the  ease  of  sharpening.  The  steel  of  a  saw 
is  softer  than  that  of  a  chisel,  in  order  that  it  may  be  filed  and  set. 
Hence  it  is  Aveaker  and  the  edge  cannot  be  so  acute.  A  typical  form 
of  tooth  is  shown  in  Fig.  87,  in  which  A  is  an  edge  view,  B  the  side 
view,  and  C  a  cross  section.  The  angle  of  each  tooth  covers  60°,  one 
side,  the  "face",  being  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  teeth.  The 
cutting  edge  runs  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  the  blade. 

This  arrangement  works  with  entire  success  along  the  grain,  but 
if  a  rip-saw  is  used  to  cut  across  the  grain,  since  there  is  no  provision 


64 


llAXDWOTJK    TX    TiVOOD. 


for  cutting  thru  tlu'  fiheis.  I'.u-li  tooth  catches  in  them  and  tears  them 
out.  thus  leaving  a  rongli  and  jagged  surface. 

In  tlie  crossriit-sdir.  tlierefore.  the  teeth  are  tiled  to  points,  and 
the  cutting  edge  is  on  the  forward  side  of  eacli  alternate  tooth.  In 
Fig.  87.  A'  is  the  eilge  view.  B'  is  the  side  view  and  C  is  a  cross-sec- 
tion. ]n  a  pro})erly  filed  crosscut-saw  a  needle  will  slide  between 
these  two  rows  of  teeth  fiom  oiH'  end  of  the  saw  to  the  other. 

I  n      action      the 
])oints.  especially  their 
^^  to]' ward   edges,  cut  or 

m^m-     ii^''^i^  I       i^c-ore     the     fibres     of 

PIP  '    Y  Yk^  •  i  ' '  I       Nvood,  and  then  the  tri- 

'•^      ^  ■■^i*/.^.     vv  nngular    elevation    of 

vrood  left  between  the 
two  rows  of  points  is 
erund)]ed  oif  l)y  fric- 
tion as  the  saw  passes 
thru.  Thus  it  drops 
farther  and  farther 
into  tile  cut.  A 
i-rosscut-saw  may  be 
thought  of  as  a  series 
of  knife  ])oints,  ar- 
ranged in  two  parallel 
idws.  Ordinarily  the 
angle  of  the  "tace"  of 
each  tooth  with  the 
line  of  the  teeth  is 
about  <i.")°.  and  slightly 
steeper  than  the  back 
of  the  tootli.  The  angle  of  the  cutting  vC\)iv  of  each  tooth  nniy  be 
filed  luore  acute  when  the  saw  is  to  he  used  for  soft  wood  onlv. 

A  crosscut-saw  when  used  to  rip  a  hoard,  works  slowly,  for  there 
is  no  chisel  action  to  cut  out  the  fibres  betwt'cn  the  points,  but  the  cut, 
tho  slow,  is  smooth.  In  cutting  diagonally  across  a  piece  of  wood, 
especially  soft  wood,  a  ii|»-saw  cuts  fastt'r.  hut  a  crosscut,  smoother. 
1 11  i'i|)|)ing  a  l)oar(l.  allowance  should  always  be  made  for  planing 
to  the  lint'  afterward,  in  stai'ting  a  cut  with  the  rip-saw,  the  weight 
ol'  the  saw  should  he  boiiu'  by  the  right  hand  so  that  the  teeth  may 


Fif."'.  J-.X.     Rip-Sawiiiy^  on  a  Horse. 


WOOD    IIAXD   TOOLS. 


65 


pass  over  the  edge  of  the  wood  as  lightly  as  possible.  The  left  thumb 
acts  as  a  guide.  If  the  saw  be  handled  thus,  and  the  angle  with  the 
board  be  quite  acute,  it  is  not  necessary  to  start  with  a  back  stroke. 
When  the  kerf  is  well  started,  the  whole  weight  of  the  saw  may  be 
applied.  An  easy  light  stroke  is  better  than  a  furious  one.  The  line 
should  be  followed  carefully,  but  if  the  saw  runs  from  the  line  it  may 
be  brouglit  back  by  taking  short  strokes  near  the  point  of  the  saw 
and  twisting  the  blade  slightly  in  the  desired  direction.  If  the  saw 
binds  and  buckles  because  of  the  springing  together  of  the  wood,  the 
kerf  may  be  wedged  open  with  a  screwdriver  or  a  l)it  of  waste  wood. 
A  drop  of  oil  rul^bed  across  each  side  of  the  saw  will  make  it  work 
more  easily. 

Care  should  be 
taken  in  finishing  a 
cut  to  hold  up  firmly 
the  part  of  the  wood 
which  is  being  sawn 
ofi'  so  that  it  will  no  I 
split  off  or  splinter. 

Sawing  may  be 
done  either  on  a  saw- 
horse.  Fig.  88,  or  at 
a  bench.  For  big, 
rough  work,  the  for- 
mer   is    the    common 

way,  the  worker  holding  the  matvi-ial  in  place  with  oik'  knee,  because 
this  method  enables  him  to  exert  liis  greatest  strength.  A  convenient 
way  for  rip-sawing  a  small  })ieee  of  wood  is  to  inseit  it  in  the  vise, 
Fig.  89,  with  the  broad  side  of  the  hoard  ]>arallel  to  the  vise  screw, 
and  the  board  inclined  away  from  the  worker  who  stands  upright. 
The  start  is  easy,  the  sawdust  does  not  cover  the  line,  and  the  board 
is  not  in  danger  of  splitting.  The  board,  however,  has  to  be  reversed 
after  it  is  sawn  part  way  thru,  in  order  to  finish  the  saw  cut. 

The  hacJc-saw  or  tenon-saw,  Fig.  90,  is  a  fine  crosscut-saw,  with 
a  rib  of  steel  along  the  back,  which  gives  to  it  its  name.  Since  it  is 
intended  for  small  accurate  work,  the  teeth  have  little  or  no  set. 

In  sawing,  the  wood  may  he  he'd  either  in  the  vise  or  on  the 
bench-hook.  To  liel])  start  the  saw  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep 
the  edges  of  the    cut    shai]).    it    is    well    to    make    a    little    groove 


Fig-.  89. 


Rip-sawiiijr  with  Wood  Held  in 
Bench-Vise. 


66 


HAXDWOEK   IN    WOOD. 


with    the    knife,    on    the    waste 

side  of  the  line  to  he  f(Ulowe(l, 

cutting  the  side   of   tlie   groove 

next  to  the  line  at  right  angles 

to  the  surface.     The  saw  dro})S 

directly   into    tliis    groove.    Fig. 

91.      In    starting    the    saw    cut, 

the    saw    slioiild    l)e    guided    hy 

holding   till'   tliund)   of   the    left 

hand    auaiust    the    side    of    the 

saw   just   ahove   the  teeth.      Cntil   the  keif   is 

should 


Fig-.  90.     Usintr  the  Back-Saw 
with   Bench-Hook. 


i^ — i 


well  St  a  1  ted.  the  saw 
held  so  that  the  teeth  just  touch  the  wood.  It  is  hetter  not 
to  attempt  to  start  the  saw  level,  i.  e., 
with  the  teeth  resting  clear  across  the 
wood,  hilt  the  handle  should  be  J'aised 
so  that  the  start  is  made  only  at  the 
farther  edge  of  the  wood.  Then  as  the 
saw  is  gradually  lowered,  the  kerf  will 
extend  (|uite  across  the  wood.  Fig.  92. 
When  the  l)ack-saw  is  used  for  ripping, 
the  wood  is  held  in  tlie  vise,  end  up. 
I'x'gin  sawing  as  in  crosscutting.  that  is, 
at  the  farther  corner  with  the  handle 
end  of  the  saw  uj).  and  gradually  drop 
the  liandle.  Watch  the  lines  on  both 
the  front  and  hack  <id(^s,  and  if  neces- 
sary, I'everse  tlie  piece  to  follow  them. 

The  ilorrfitil-sdir.  Fig.  9;i,  is  a  small  hack-saw  for  delicate  work. 

The  couipass-sdii-.   Fig.   94.  is  narrow.   i)ointe(h  thick,   to   prevent 


Fig-.  'II.     Startintr  a  Saw  Cut  in  a 
Troutrh  Cut  With  Knife. 


^l^^^B 


Fiy. 'i3.     Dovetail-Saw 


Fifr    '>2.     Direction  of  the  Back-Saw 


Fig-.  "^'4.     Compass-Saw. 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS. 


67 


Fig-.  95.  Usino-  a  Turning-Saw. 


buckling,  and  Avith  a  wide  set  to  the  teeth,  to  help  in  following  the 

curves.     The  teeth  are  a  cross  between  the  rip  and  crosscut  teeth.     It 

is  used  in  sawing  curves. 

The  tuniiiKj-sair,  Fig.  !).5,  is  a  narrow  saw,  set  in  a  frame,  which 

stretches  the  saw  tight,  so  that 
it  works  as  a  tension  saw  (cf. 
p.  62.  The  best  frames  are 
made  so  that  the  handles  which 
hold  the  blade  can  revolve  in 
the  frame.  The  turning-saw  is 
used  chiefly  for  cutting  curves. 
A  14  inch  blade,  3/16  of  an  inch 
wide  is  a  good  size  for  ordinary 
use.  The  teeth  are  like  those 
of  a  rip-saw,  so  that  they  are 
quite  likely  to  tear  the  wood  in 
cutting  across  the  grain.  Al- 
lowance should  1)6  made  for  this 
and   the    surplus   removed   with 

a  spokeshave.     The  turning-saw  may  l^e.used  to  cut  on  eithei'  the 

pulling  or  the  pushing  stroke,  with  the  teeth  pointed  either  toward 

or  away  from  the  worker.     The  ])ulling  cut  is  generaUy  better,  as  it 

puts  less  strain  on   the   frame  than   the  pushing  cut.      Both   hands 

should  gras])  tlie   frame   as   near  the  end   of  the   blade  as   possible, 

Fig.  95.     Till  us  au'  made  hy  revolving  the  frame  on  the  blade  as  an 

axis,    w  h  i  c  h 

should  ahvays 

be      kept      at 

right      angles 

to  the  surface 

of   the   board. 

Care      should 

be    taken    not 

to    twist    the 

blade. 

To  file  and 

set  a  saw,  the 

saw     is     first 

fastened       i  n  „.     „,    „      ^r- 

Fig-.  96.    Saw-Vise. 


68 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Vig.'n.     A  Saw-Joint ir. 


the  saw-vise,  Fig.  90,  with  the  tei'th  up.  It  is  then  top-jointed  by 
running  a  tiat  file  or  a  saw-jointer.  Fig.  !»;,  back  and  forth  length- 
wise along  the  tops  of  the 
teeth  to  ))ring  them  to  a  level. 
After  jointing  the  saw  should 
be  set.  For  this  purpose  a  saw- 
set.  Fig.  98.  is  necessar}^  Ev- 
ery alternate  tooth  is  bent  in 
tlie  direction  of  its  set  by  the 
phniger  in  the  instrument 
piisliing  against  the  anvil, 
winch  is  an  adjustable  eccentric 
disc.  After  the  saw  is  set.  it  is  filed.  This  is  done  with  a  triangular 
file.  Fig.  144.  p.  90.  which  is  iield  in  the  right  hand  and  its  point  in 
the  thund)  and  fingers  of  the  left.  Piessure  is  a])plied  only  on  the 
forwai'd  stmke.  which  should  b;.' 
long  and  even,  the  fde  being 
raised  above  the  tooth  on  the 
letuin  stidke.  The  lih'  shouhl 
cut  in  the  direction  of  the  set. 
that  is.  the  teeth  having  the 
set  away  from  tlie  workei- 
are   nk'tl   first.     iMery  alternate 

tooth,  1st.  od.  otli.  etc..  is  tikMh  ami  then  tlie  saw  is  reveised  and  the 
other  set,  the  '.M,  4th.  (Ith.  etc..  is  liled. 

in  filing  a  rip-saw  the  tile  should  move  exactly  pei})endicularly 
to  the  plane  of  the  saw  blade,  that  is,  directly  across  the  teeth.  The 
filing  is  done  on  the  hack  of  the  teeth,  the  file  just  touching  the  face 
of  the  next  one.  The  filing  is  coutinued.  with  one.  two.  or  three 
strokes,  tor  each  tooth,  as  the  case  may  re(piire.  or  just  until  each 
tootli  is  shai']). 

J 11  filing  a  crosscut-saw.  the  file  is  held  ])ointing  upward  and  to- 
v.ard  the  ))oiiit  of  the  saw.  The  tile  should  cut  in  the  direction  of 
the  set.  The  angle  of  the  cutting  e<lge  is  dett'rmined  l)y  the  hori- 
zontal inclination  of  the  lile  to  the  blade  ;  the  angh'  of  the  ])oint  is 
deterniiiie(|  bv  the  jieipeiidicuhir  inclination  of  the  lib'  to  the  blade. 
Finally  the  sides  (d'  the  trv\\\  aie  riibhed  lightly  witii  a  slipstone 
to  remove  the  wire  vdiS^'.  It  should  a'wa\s  be  remembered  that  a  saw 
is  an  edge  tool,  and  its  e<lges  are  as  lialde  to  injury  as  any  edges. 


Fig-.  98.     S.-iw-Set. 


WOOD   HAXD   TOOLS. 


69 


PLANES. 

The  plmie  is  a  modified  chisel.  The  chief  difference  in  action 
between  a  chisel  and  a  plane  in  paring  is  this :  the  back  of  the  chisel 
lies  close  down  on  the  surface  of  the  wood  that  is  cut,  and  acts  as  a 
guide;  whereas,  in  the  plane,  the  cutter  is  elevated  at  an  angle  away 
from  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  only  its  cutting  edge  touches  the 
wood,  and  it  is  held  and  guided  mechanically  by  the  plane  median- 


if 


~^<^ 


Fif,'.  9<J.  Adjustable  Chisel-Gage.     Fig-.  100.     Wooden  Bench-Plane. 

ism.  In  other  words,  a  plane  is  a  chisel  firmly  held  in  a  device  which 
raises  the  cutter  at  an  angle  from  the  work,  regulates  the  depth  of 
the  cut,  and  favors  the  cutting  rather  than  the  splitting  action.  An 
illustration  of  a  chisel  converted  into  a  plane  is  the  adjustable  chisel- 
gage,  Fig.  99. 

The  plane  has  developed  as  follows :    it  was  first  a  chisel  held  in 
a  block  of  wood.     This  is  all  that  oriental  planes  are  now,  simply  a 


Fig.  101.     Section  of  Jack-Plane. 

sharpened  wedge  driven  into  a  block  of  wood.  When  the  hole  works 
too  loose,  the  Japanese  carpenter  inserts  a  piece  of  paper  to  tighten 
it,  or  he  makes  a  new  block.  The  first  improvement  was  the  addition 
of  a  wooden  wedge  to  hold  in  place  the  "plane-iron",  as  the  cutter 
was  formerly  called.     Tn  this  form,  the  cutter  or  plane-iron,  tho  still 


70  HAXDWOHK    IX    ^VOOD. 

wedge-sliaped,  was  reversed,  being  made  heavier  at  the  cutting  edge 
in  order  to  facilitate  fastening  it  in  the  wooden  plane-stock  by  means 
of  the  wooden  wedge.  Then  a  handle  was  added  for  convenience. 
Tlieii  came  the  cap,  the  object  of  which  is  to  brrak  hack  the  shaving 
and  thus  weaken  it  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  cut.  Until  a  few 
years  ago,  this  was  all  that  there  was  in  a  ])lane.  and  sneli  planes  are, 
still  connnon.  Fig.  KMi.  Finally  tlicre  appeared  the  iron  plane,  Fig. 
10],  witli  it  various  mechanical  adjustments.  The  following  are 
the  parts  of  the  Bailey  iron  plane:'' 

1.  ('utlcr.  or  bit.  or  Ijladc.  or  i>l<i ik  -iron. 

2.  Cap.  or  plane-iron  cdp.  or  rtirlin^  iron. 

3.  Cutter  screw,   or  [ijanc-iroii   s( n  ir. 

4.  Clamp,  or  Urcr  caj).  or  wedjie. 
.").  Claiii]i  screw,  or  cap  sci'cir. 

().  Fro;/. 

7.  y  Adjuslniciit. 

5.  Brass   set  screw,   or   brass  ikJ jusli ncj   nut. 
!).  TjCVci'    (for    lalrraj   ad  jusi  nuiit  ]  . 

10.  Fl^o<|  sen  a-. 

11.  Uanillr. 
VI.    Knoh. 

1."..  Handle  bolt   ami   nut. 

14.  Kiiol)  screw,  or   Knob   bolt  and   nut. 

ITi.  Handle  screw. 

KJ.  lirjffoni.  or  solo. 

17.  Toe. 

18.  Heel. 
1!).  Throat. 

•10.  Tliiniili   ]iicc(\   or   clamp   lever,   or    cam. 

There  are  various  ])rinci|)les  involved  in  the  action  of  the  plane. 
The  effect  of  the  flat  sole  is  to  regulate  the  cut  of  the  cutter.  If  the 
surface  be  uneven,  the  cutter  ^ill  not  cut  at  all,  or  but  little,  in  pass- 
ing over  low  places,  since  the  toe  and  heel  of  the  sole  will  then  bo 
resting  on  higher  ])laces:  Itut  when  the  eutter  leaches  a  high  place 
a  shaving  will  be  taken  olf.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  longer  the 
)ilane.  the  sti'aighter  will  lie  the  surface  produced.  The  length  of  the 
])hine  used  is  dett'rmined  by  the  length  of  the  wood  to  lie  planed,  and 
the  degree  of  straightness  desired. 

*  Tlie  mnnlicrs  and  names  in  italics  are  those  ^iven  in  Stanley's  Catalog, 
No.  34.  Some  ol'  lliesc  names,  us  "iilanc-iron.""  are  snrvivals  from  the  days 
of   the    wooden    plane   and   are   obviously    unsiiiiable   now. 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS. 


71 


The  part  of  the  sole  directly  in  front  of  the  cutter  presses  firmly 
down  on  the  wood  and  so  prevents  the  shaviirg  from  splitting  far  in 
advance  of  the  edge.  It  follows  that  the  narrowness  of  the  month 
in  a  plane  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  smooth  sur- 
faces. This  can  be  regulated  by  adjusting  the  toe  in  the  block-plane, 
and  by  moving  the  frog  in  the  jack-  and  smooth-planes. 

A  recent  improveiuent  in  jack-,  smooth-,  and  fore-planes  consists 
of  an  adjustable  frog,  by  means  of  which  the  throat  can  be  narrowed 
or  widened  at  will  l)y  means  of  a  set-screw  in  the  rear  of  the  frog 
without  removing  the  clamp  and  cutter.  It  is  made  by  Sargent  and 
Company.  The  Stanley  "Bed  Eock"  plane  has  a  similar  but  less 
convenient  device. 

The  splitting  of  the  wood  in  advance  of  the  edge  is  also  prevented 
by  the  breaking  of  the  shaving  as  it  hits  against  the  cutter  or 
its  cap.  Hence  the  advantage  of  bending  up  and  breaking  or  partly 
breaking  the  shaving  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  cut.  This  shows 
wliy  tlie  ca])  is  set  close  to  the  edge  of  the  cutter.  Another  reason 
is  that  it  thereby  stiffens  the  cutter  and 
prevents  "chattering."  If  a  thick  shav- 
ing l)e  desired  the  cap  has  to  be  set  far- 
ther back.  In  a  smooth-plane  1/32  inch 
is  enough,  in  a  jack-]dane  1/8  inch 
is  often  desirable.  The  fallowing  are 
the  planes  in  common  use : 

The  jacl--p]ane.  Fig.  10-3,  14"  to  15" 
long,  is  the  one  used  where  a  consider- 
able amount  of  material  is  to  be  taken 
off  to  bring  a  piece  of  wood  to  size,  and 
therefore  the  outline  of  the  cutting  edge 
instead  of  being  straight  is  slightly 
cuL'ved  or  "crowned"  so  that  in  planing 
the  surface  of  a  board  it  makes  a  series 
of  shallow  grooves,  the  ridges  of  wdiich 
must  afterward  be  smoothed  off  by  an- 
other plane.  Also  for  beginners  whose 
hands  are  not  strong  it  is  sometimes  wise 
to  grind  the  cutter  with  some  "crown", 

in  order  to  take  off  narrow  shavings,  which  require  less  strength.    For 
school  use,  where  the  jack-plane  is  used  for  all  purposes,  the  cutter 


Fig-.  II  2    Sig'htiiig'  Along-  the  Sole 
ol  Jack-Plane 


72  HANDWOIIK    IN     WOOD. 

is  usually  ground  almost  straight  and  only  the  corners  rounded  as 
in  the  smooth-plane  and  the  fore-plane.' 

The  fori'-plaiie.  '2'2"  to  2()"  long,  and  the  jointer,  2S"  to  30"  long, 
are  large  planes,  similar  to  the  jack-plane,  excei)t  that  the  cutting  edge 
is  straight.  They  are  used  for  straightening  and  smoothing  long  pieces. 

The  siiioolli-phiiK'.  hYi"  to  Id"  long,  is  a  short  jilane,  similar  to 
the  jack-plane,  exce])t  that  the  cutting  edge  is  stiaiglit.  It  is  use<l 
for  smoothing. 

These  ffuir  })!anes.  the  jack-plane,  the  forc-i)hinc,  the  j(unter,  and 
the  smootli-plane,  are  essentially  alike,  and  directions  for  the  use  of 
one  apply  to  all. 

Theie  are  two  chief  adjustments  in  the  Bailey  iron  plane:  the 
brass  set-screw,  see  8  in  Fig.  KH.  which  regulates  the  depth  of  the 
cut,  and  the  lever,  !»,  which  moves  llic  cutter  sidewise  so  that  it  may 
he  made  to  cut  evenly.  The  skilful  woi'ker  kee]is  coustant  watch  of 
these  adjustments.  It  is  well  to  form  the  habit  of  always  sighting 
along  the  sole  before  Ijeginning  to  |)lane,  in  order  to  see  that  the 
cutter  piojects  properly.  Fig.  1<I-^.  It  is  a  common  uiistake  among 
beginiUMs  to  let  the  cutter  juojcct  too  far. 

It  is  iuiportant  to  know  A\hat  is  tlu'  best  oi'der  of  procedure  in 
planing  up  a  board.  There  are  often  reasons  for  omitting  the  plan- 
ing up  of  one  or  more  suifaces.  but  it  is  wise  to  form  the  habit  of 
following  a  regular  order,  and  the  following  is  suggested  as  a  good  one: 

1.  ^\'()lking•  face.  Plane  one  l)road  side  flat  and  smooth.  Finish 
with  the  ]»laiie  set  to  c-ut  tine  shavings.  Test  with  tiy-s(piaie.  ^lark 
this  face  with  a  distinct  pencil   iiiai'k.  A.  Fig.   l<>o. 

'i.  Working  edge.  Plane  one  narrow  side  stiaigbt  and  square 
with  the  working  face.  Test  with  try-s(|uare.  jtressing  the  block  of 
the  ti'y-S(piare  against  the  working  face.  Mai'k  the  working  edge 
with  two  distinct  pencil  marks.  I).  Fig.  lo.S. 

3.  Fnd.  First  mark  the  width  on  the  working  face  with  the 
marking-gage.  ('.  1-::^,  Fig.  103.  Chisel  off  the  c'orner.  <i .  of  the 
piece  outside  ibis  gaged  line.  True  and  smooth  tins  end  with  the 
p'ane,  making  it  scpnire  with  both  worlcing  face  and  W(U-king  edge. 
I),  -i.  3.  J,  Fig.  103. 

-1.  Length.  ^Measure  the  length  fr(un  the  fiidshed  end.  D,  2-3-4, 
score   across   the   woikinu'  face,   1),    ■")-•),   and    workimz'   eda'e,  I),   6-T, 


In  \\li('t(in<;'  a  plaiu'-bit.  a  slijilit  cinw n  may  he  given  it  hy  rubbing  a 
liil  liMidcr  at  tlic  onds  of  tho  edge  than  in  the  middle.  Strop  in  the  same 
\\;\y   as   a    chisel     (p.    .")!•). 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


73 


using  a  sharp  knife  point  and  the  tiy-sqnare.  Saw  just  outside  this 
line,  D,  5-6-7,  with  the  back-saw,  cut  off  the  narrow  corner,  D,  6, 
beyond  the  gaged  line  and  plane  true,  E,  Fig.  103. 


Fig.  103.     The  Order  of  Planing-  a  Board. 


5.  Width.  Plane  to  the  center  of  the  gaged  line,  E,  1-3.  Test 
this  edge  from  the  working  face,  F,  Fig.  103. 

6.  Thickness.  Mark  the  thickness  with  the  marking-gage  all 
around  the  piece,  F,  8-9-10.  Plane  to  the  center  of  the  gaged  line, 
G,  Fig.  103.     Test  this  face  for  flatness. 


74 


llAXUWOltK    IX     \VUUL). 


In  a  \v(»i(].  the  order  to  be  followed  is  graphically  represented  in 

H,  Fig.   ]{):].     The  surfaces  are  numbered  consecutively  in  the  order 

in  which  they  are  to  be  planed. 

The  advantages  of  this  order  are  these:    by  planing  the  working 

face  first,  a  broad  surface  is  secured  to  which  the  others  may  be  nurde 

true.  By  ])laning  the  ends  before  the 
width  is  plaired,  the  danger  of  splitting 
olf  fragments  can  he  avoided  by  chisel- 
ing the  corner  of  the  unfinished  edges, 
C,  a,  and  D,  h.  Fig.  103,  into  a  buttress. 
I|v  planing  the  ends  and  the  width  be- 
foie  the  thickness  is  planed,  a  dressed 
face  is  secured  aM  around  for  gaging 
the  thickness.  In  following  this  order 
all  iiicasiiKMiifuts  and  markings  are 
made  oil  a   di  csscd   face. 

If  tlieie  be  any  "wind""  n\-  twist  in 
the  ])oard,  this  should  l)e  discovered  first 
of  all.  This  may  l)e  done  roughly  by  sight- 
ing acioss  the  broad  side  of  the  board, 
I'^ig.  104,  and  more  accurately  by  the  use 
of  "wiuding  sticks,"  see  Fig.  205,  p..  113. 
Or  the  sill  face  may  be  tested  with  the 
FiR  104.   sijfhti.iH- for  Wind.  ^,|.^j^^,   j|j„,|f  |,y  tilting  tlic  i)lane  on  its 

long  corner  vd'j^c  and   resting  it  on  the 

board,  wliih'  the  worker  looks  between  the  board  and  the  plane  toward 

the    light.      It    is   e\ident   that   the  plane  must   be   turned   in   \arious 

directions  to  test  for  wind,  and  that 

:i   board   only  as   long  oi'  as  wide  as 

the    plane    is    long   can    be    tested    in 

tlii>-    way.      The    tiy-s(piare    or    any 

stiaigiif    e<lge    may    be    used    for   the 

same  |iiii|!')se.  Fig.  Id.").     If  there  be 

any   wind    in   the  board,  this  should 

at   once  be  taken  out  of  one   face  by 

])laning  down   the  high  corners. 

1  n  stai  t  iiig  to   plane,  the  worker 

should   bcai'  down  on  the  knoh  at   the  front  end  of  the  plane.      When 

the  plane  is  well  on   the  hoanl,  he  >liouhl  hear  down  eipially  on  both 


Fisf.  10.^.  TesUTi(r  from  Edg-e 
to  Kdire. 


^VOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


75 


Fig-.  lOt).    Planing-  an  Edge. 


knob  and  handle,  and  as  the  plane  begins  to  pass  off  the  board  he 
should  put  all  the  pressure  on  the  handle  end.  Fig.  106.     By  taking 

pains  thus,  a  convex  surface 
will  be  avoided,  the  making  of 
which  is  a  common  error  of  be- 
ginners. On  the  return  stroke, 
the  plane  should  be  lifted  or 
tilted  so  that  the  cutting  edge 
will  not  be  dulled  by  rubbing 
on  the  Avood.  This  is  especially 
important  on  rough  and  dirty 
boards,  as  it  saves  the  cutting  edge,  and  in  fine  work,  as  it  saves  the 
work.  If  the  plane  tear  the  wood  instead  of  cutting  it  smooth,  as  it 
should,  it  is  because  the  planing  is  "against  the  grain".  This  can 
often  be  avoided  by  noticing  the  direction  of  the  grain  before  begin- 
ning to  plane.  But  even  if  it  l)e  not  noted  beforehand,  a  stroke  or 
two  will  show  the  roughness.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  necessary  simply 
to  turn  the  wood  around. 

The  accuracy  of  the  work  as  it  progresses  should  frequently  be 
tested,  and  the  eye  should  constantly  be  trained  so  that  it  can  more 
and  more  be  depended  upon  to  detect  inaccuracy,  Fig.  107.  As  each 
surface  is  trued,  it  should  be  carefully  smoothed  with  the  cutter  set 
to  cut  fine  shavings. 

In  planing  a  very  cross-gTained  piece  of  wood,  there  are  several 
methods  to  use  for  securing  a  smootli 
surface.  The  frog  of  the  plane  should 
be  moved  forward  so  that  the  throat  in 
the  front  of  the  cutter  is  a  mere  slit. 
In  the  ordinary  plane  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  the  cutter  in  order  to  reset  the 
frog,  but  in  the  Sargent  plane  and  the 
Stanley  "bed  rock""  plane,  it  can  be  set 
by  a  set-screw  at  the  rear  of  the  frog. 
Xext,  the  cap  should  l)e  set  so  that  the 
cutter  projects  ):)ut  very  little  l)eyond  it, 
or,  in  technical  language,  the  cutter 
should  be  set  "fine."     A  sliding  cut,  see 

p.  53.  should  be  taken  with  the  plane,  and  sometimes  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  move  the  plane  neaidy  at  right  angles  to  the  general  direction 


76  1IAXD\V01!K    IX    WOOD. 

of  the  grain.  By  tliese  means  even  refractory  pieces  of  wood  can  be 
well  smootlied.     See  also  scrai:)ers,  p.  91. 

The  chokino-  of  a  plane  is  tlie  st()i)i)age  of  the  throat  by  shavings. 
It  may  be  due  sim]dy  to  the  fact  that  the  cutter  is  dull  or  that  it 
])rojects  too  far  l)elow  the  sole  of  the  plane.  In  a  wooden  plane  chok- 
ing is  sometimes  due  to  tlie  crowding  of  sliavings  under  some  part  of 
the  wedge.  When  the  adjustable  frog  in  a  modern  plane  is  improperly 
)jlaced  choking  may  result.  The  frog  should  be  far  enough  forward 
so  tliat  tlie  cutter  rests  squarely  upon  it. 

Choking  may.  and  )uost  commonly  does,  take  place  because  the 
cap  does  not  fit  down  tight  on  the  cutter.  This  happens  if  the  cap 
l)c  nicked  or  uneven.  In  conse<[uence.  minute  sbavings  are  driven 
between  tbese  two  irons  and  choking  soon  results.  'I'be  remedy  is  to 
sharpen  tlie  cap.  so  tbat  its  edge  nuikes  a  close  lit  with  the  cutter. 
The  fit  may  be  nuide  still  tighter  by  rul:)bing  with  a  screwdriver  the 
(■<]^^v  of  tile  cap  down  on  tbe  cutter  after  it  is  screwed  in  place. 

In  no  tool  is  it  more  important  to  keep  tbe  cutter  sharp  than  in 
the  ])lane.  To  remove  the  cutter,  in  order  to  sharpen  it,  first  loosen 
tbe  clamp  lever  and  remove  tlie  clani]).  Carefully  remove  tbe  cap 
and  cutter  taking  jiains  not  to  let  tbe  edge  bit  any  part  of  tbe  plane, 
tlien  using  tbe  c'ani])  as  a  screwdi'iver.  loosen  the  cap-screw  and  slide 
the  ca]i  back  along  tbe  slot  in  the  cutter,  where  it  can  be  held  fast 
liy  a  turn  of  tbe  ca]i-screw.  The  edge  is  now  free  and  can  readily  be 
whetted.  Wlien  tbe  ca))  needs  to  l)e  entirely  removed,  for  instance, 
for  grinding,  after  it  lias  l)een  slid  along  tbe  cutter  slot,  as  before,  it 
is  turned  at  ligbt  angles  to  tbe  cutter,  and  then  slid  down  the  slot 
until  tbe  cap-screw  unbuttons  from  tbe  cutter.  Tbe  object  in  sliding 
tbe  caj)  up  tbe  slot  liefore  turning  it,  is  to  prevent  tbe  danger  of  in- 
juring tbe  edge.  Some  cajis  are  now  made  with  tlu:'  liuttoidiole  at 
tbe  u])])er  end  of  the  slot. 

After  sbarpening,  (see  under  sbai'])ening.  ]>.  IIT.)  the  order  is  re- 
versed for  replacing  tbe  cutter.  Tbe  cap  is  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
cutter,  tbe  cap-screw  dropped  into  tbe  slot,  tbe  cap  is  slid  up  the 
slot,  and  turned  into  line  witii  tbe  cutter,  an<l  tben  slid  down  the  slot 
till  tbe  edge  of  tbe  cap  comes  quite  near  tbe  edge  of  tbe  cutter.  Then 
I  be  two  are  held  firmly  together  with  the  left  band  until  the  cap 
screw  is  turned  tight. 

In  rephicing  the  cutter  and  ca]!  in  tlie  |)lane,  care  should  be  taken 
not   to  injure  tbe  edge  and   to  see  tbat   the  Y  adjustment  lever  fits 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


77 


into  the  little  slot  in  the  cap;  then  iinally  tlie  lever  is  thrown  down 
tight.  Then,  by  turning  the  plane  sole  upward  and  glancing  down 
it,  the  proper  adjustments  with  the  brass  set-screw  and  lateral  ad- 
justment lever  are  made.  When  the  plane  is  not  being  used,  it  should 
rest  either  on  a  pillow  (a  little  strip  of  wood  in  the  bench  trough), 
or  on  its  side.  In  no  case  shoidd  it  1)0  droi)]ied  sole  down  flat  on 
the  bench. 

The  hlocl:- 
plane,  Fig.  108, 
gets  its  name 
from  the  fact 
that  it  was  first 
made  for  plan- 
ing off  the  ends 
of  clap-boards, 
a  process  called 
"blocking    in". 


Fig-.  108.    Section  of  Block-Plane. 


The  nai)ies  of  the  parts  of  the  Bailey  block-p'ane  are": 

1.  Cutter  or  bit  or  plane-iron. 

2.  Clamp  or  lever  cap. 

3.  Cap-sereir. 

4.  Adjusting  lever. 

5.  Adjusting  nut. 

t).  Lateral  a<l jushnenf. 

7.  Bottom. 

8.  Moutli  piece. 

9.  Eccentric  plate. 
10.   Knoh. 

The  block-plane  Avas  devised  for  use  with  one  hand,  as  when  it  is 
used  by  carpenters  in  planing  pieces  not  readily  taken  to  a  vise  or  in 
planing  with  a  bench-hook.  Hence  it  is  made  small,  3^"  to  8"  long, 
the  clamp  is  rounded  so  as  to  act  as  a  handle,  and  the  cutter  is  low- 
ered to  an  angle  of  about  20°  to  make  the  plane  easy  to  grasp.  The 
lower  angle  of  the  cutter  makes  it  necessary  that  the  bevel  be  on  the 
upper  side.  Otherwise,  to  give  clearance,  the  bevel  would  have  to  be 
made  so  long  and  so  thin  as  to  be  weak.  By  putting  the  bevel  up, 
the  angle  between  the  wood  and  the  cutter  is  maintained  practically 


''  See  foot-note  jj.   70. 


78 


|[AXI)W0I;K    IX    AVOOD. 


as  in  the  smooth-plane.  Since  tlie  bloek-phine  is  intended  chiefly  for 
use  on  end  grain,  no  cap  is  needed  to  ])Yei\k  the  sliavings.  The  ad- 
justable throat  makes  it  possible  to  cut  a  very  fine  shaving.  To  facili- 
tate the  cutting  action,  several  forms  of  l:)lock-planes  with  a  very  low 
angle  are  now  made. 

Where  both  hands  are  free  to  liohl  the  plane,  the  block-plane  has 
no  advantage  over  a  sm()oth-|)lane,  even  on  end  grain.  j\Ioreover,  the 
cutter  cannot  be  held  sd  finidy  in  place  as  that  of  a  smooth-plane,  so 
that  it  re(piires  constant  adjustment.  Hence  it  is  not  an  easy  tool 
for  amateurs  to  handle.  There  is  considerable  lost  motion  in  the 
adjusting  nut.  and  the  set-screw,  which  acts  as  a  knob,  is  likely  to 
woi'k  loose  and  be  lost.  It  is  hardly  to  be  recommended  as  a  part  of 
the  e(juipnient  of  the  individual  bt'uch  in  school  shops. 

The  ])iece  to  lie  planed  with  the  block-plane  may  l)e  held  either 
in  the  vise,  end  up,  or  on  a  bench-hook.  Fig.   lt>;).     In  end  p'aning 

in  the  vise,  in  order  to  avoid 
s})lintering  the  precautitui  should 
be  taken  to  trim  oft'  a  corner  on 
the  undressed  edge,  as  directed 
on  page  To.  or  else  the  planing 
iiiiist  be  done  from  l)oth  edges 
towai'd  the  center.  The  sliding 
cut  is  much  easier  than  the 
straight  cut.  and  hence  there  is 
a  constant  temptation  to  turn 
the  ])lanc  at  an  angle  pcihai>s  at  an  ex]>cnse  of  the  flat  surface  desired. 
In  using  the  l)ench-hook  the  ]>iece  to  be  block-planed  is  placed 
with  tbe  working  edge  against  the  block,  with  the  end  to  be  planed 
to  tlu'  right  and  Hush  with  the  edge  of  the  bench-hook,  in  which  ])osi- 
lion  it  is  held  with  tbe  left  hand.  The  block-plane,  held  in  the  right 
hand,  is  placed  on  its  side  on  the  bench  facing  toward  the  W(U'k.  In 
planing,  the  left  band  bolds  llie  woi'k  iirndy  against  the  block  of  the 
beiicb-hook,  pressing  it  somewhat  to  tbe  I'iglit  against  tlu'  plane.  The 
riglit  hand  holds  the  side  of  the  plane  llal  on  the  bench  and  presses  it 
lo  tbe  left  against  the  beiicb-liook  and  work.  Held  in  this  position 
tbe  plane  is  |tushe(|  forwaid  and  back'  until  the  end  is  smoothed. 
( 'onsidei  able   pi'aclict'   is    necessai'y   to  baiidle   llie  block-plane  well. 

'I'be  x(  I  iih-jildiw  is  a  slioit  obuie  in  wliicli  the  ciown  of  tbe  cutter. 
Fig.   11(1,  is  (|uile  cui\('d.      It  is  used  jo  icduce  surfaces  rapidly. 


Fig-.  100.     UsiiifjT  tin-  Block-Plane 
and  Beiich-Hook. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


79 


The  scHitch-pJanc,  Fig.  Ill,  has  a  toothed  c-utter  whicli  scratches 
fine  lines  along  its  course.  It  is  used  to  roughen  surfaces  of  hard 
wood  which  are  to  be  glued  together,  for  otherwise  the  glue  would 
not  adhere  well.     Some  tropical  woods  are  so  hard  that  their  surfaces 


Fig-.  110.     Cutter  of  Scrub-Plane.  Fig,  111.     Scratch-Plane  and  Scraper-Plane. 

can  be  i educed  only  hy  a  scratch-plane.  It  is  also  useful  in  {preparing 
the  surface  of  a  very  cross-grained  piece  of  wood  which  cannot  be 
planed  without  chip])ing.  By  first  scratching  it  carefully  in  all  di- 
rections, it  can  then  be  scraped  smooth.  It  is  a^so  called  a  semper- 
plane,  because  accompanying  the  plane  is  a  scraper  which  can  be  in- 
serted in  the  same  stock  and  inclined  at  any  required  angle.  This 
plane-stock  ])revents  the  scraper  from  unduly  lowering  some  portions 
of  the  sniface.     See  also  veneer-scraper,  p.  1)1. 

The  rttbbetin;/-  or  rebating-plane.  Fig.  112,  is  designed  for  use  in 
cutting  out  a  rectangular  recess,  such  as  the  rabbet  on  the  Ijack  of 


Fig.  112.     Rabbet-Plane 


Fig-.  113.     Molding-Plane. 


the  picture-frames.     In  line  with  Ihe  right  hand  corner  of  the  cutter 
is  a  removable  spur  to  score  the  wood  so  that  the  shaving  which  fol- 


BO 


ITAXDWORK    TX    WOOD. 


Fijsr.  114.     Result  of 

Careless     use    of 

Rabbet-Plane. 


lows  mav  be  cut  out  clean  and  not  torn  out.     With  the  a(l<lition  of  a 

guiding  fence  it    is  called   a  pllctslcr.     This   may    he   \\<vi\   on   either 

the  right  or  left  side.      In  the   form  shown   in 

Fig.    ]\'2.  there  is  also  a  depth  gage. 

In  using  this   plane  see  that  the  corner  of 

the  cutter   is    in    line    with    the   sole,   and    that 

both   it  and  the  s])ur  are  sliaip.     Set   the  fence 

and  the  stop  at  the  ilesired  width  and  deipth  of 

the   rabbet.      At    the   hrst   stioke   the   spur   will 

score  the  width.     'Idiis  and  e\erv  stroke  should 

be  taken   as  evenly  and   carefully  as   if   it  were 

the  only  one.     In  the  eMoit  to  keep  the  fence 

pressed  close  to  the  side  of  the  wood,  the  ten(h'ncy  is  to  tilt  the  p'.ane 

over.     This  causes  llie  verv  opposite  etfect  from  that  desired,  for  the 

spur  runs  off  diagonally,  as 
in  Fig.  114. 

If  this  happens  stop 
planing  at  once,  clean  out 
the  recess  jiroperly  with  a 
chisel   and   then   pioceed. 

The  iliiilo-jihiiic  is  much 
like  the  rabl)eting-])lane,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  pio\ide(l  witli 
two  spuis.  oiii'  at  each  side 
of  the  cutting  ed'ie,  to  score 
the  wood  bet'oie  cutting. 
The  iiK.hVunj-phnii  .   Fig.   ll-"i.  as  it   name  imhcates,  is  for  making 

moldings  (d'  \ai'ious   ioims:    as.  (piartei-iound.  half-round,  ogee,  etc. 
'^riie    hiiii/in  ini-(ni(l-tir()ijrui(/- 

jihnir.   l-'ig.   1  l"i.  is  for  matching 

boaids,    i.   e..    uiaking   a    tongue 

in  one  to  lit   into  a  gi  oove  in  an- 
other.    See   Fig.  •-'('.'.».   No.   \-t.  p. 

18-2. 

The  (■in/lliir-/il(iiir.   j-'ii;.    1  1  li. 

has    a    lli'xilile    stc'l     f  ice    which 

can  \)v  adjusted   to  any  ie(|uii'ed 

arc,  convex   or   concave,   so  that 

Clll'Ved    SUltVces    l!:av    he    planed.  Fiir.  lit).     Circular-Plane. 


Fij.'-.  115.     TDntruiny-and-i.nioviiicr-Pkuu'. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


81 


The  universal  plane.  Fig.  11?,  is  a  conihination  of  various  mold- 
ing-, rabbeting-,  matching-  and  other  planes.  It  is  capable  of  nianv 
adjustments  and  applications.  The  piinciijal  parts  of  this  plane  are: 
a  main  stocl-,  A.  witii  two  sets  of  transverse  sliding  arms,  a  depth- 
gage,  F,  adjusted  by  a  screw,  and  a  slitting  cutte-r  with  stop,  a  sliding 
section.  B.  with  a  vertically  adjustable  bottom,  the  auxiliary  center 
bottom.  (',  to  be  })laced  when  needed  in  front  of  the  cutter  as  an  extra 


Fig-.  117.     Universal  Plane, 


support  or  stop.  This  bottom  is  adjustable  both  vertically  and  lat- 
erally. Fences,  D  and  E.  For  tine  work,  fence  D  has  a  lateral  ad- 
justment by  means  of  a  thumb-screw.  The  fences  can  l)e  used  on 
either  side  of  the  plane,  and  the  rosewood  guides  can  be  tilted  to  any 
desired  angle  up  to  -15°,  by  loosening  the  screws  on  the  face.  Fence 
E  can  be  reversed  for  center-beading  wide  boards.  For  work  thinner 
than  the  depth  of  the  fence,  the  work  may  overhang  the  edge  of  the 
bench  and  fence  E  be  removed.  An  adju.^tahle  stop,  to  be  used  in 
beading  the  edges  of  matched  boards,  is  inserted  on  the  left  side  of 
the  sliding  section  B.  A  great  variety  of  cutters  are  supplied,  such 
as:  molding,  matching,  ■  sash,  beading,  reeding,  fluting,  hollow, 
round,  plow,  rabbet,  and  filletster.  Special  shapes  can  be  obtained 
by  order. 

The  Use  of  the  Universal  Plane.  Insert  the  ])roper  cutter,  adjust- 
ing it  so  that  the  portion  of  it  in  line  with  the  main  stock,  A.  will 
project  lielow  the  sole  the  proper  distance  for  cutting. 


82 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


Fig-.  118  Iron  Spokeshave.       Fi<: 


119.  Pattern-maker's 
Spokeshave. 


Adjust  the  bottom  of  the  sliding  section,  B,  so  that  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  cutter  will  project  the  proper  distance  below  it  for  cut- 
ting. Tighten  the  check  nuts  on  the  transverse  arms  and  then 
tighten  the  thumb-screws  which  secure  the  sliding  section  to  the  arms. 
The  sliding  section  is  not  always  necessary,  as  in  a  narrow  rabbet 
or  bead. 

When  ;ni  additional  support  is  needed  for  the  cutter,  the  auxiliary 

center  bottom.  C,  may 
be  adjusted  in  front 
i)f  it.  This  may  also 
1)0  used  as  a  stop. 

Adjust  one  or  both 
of  the   fences,  D   and 
E,  and  fasten  witli  tlio  tlnunb-screws.     Adjust  the  depth-gage,  F,  at 
the  proper  depth. 

For  a  dado  remove  the  fences  and  set  the  spurs  parallel  with  the 
edges  of  the  cutter.  Insert  the  long  adjustable  stop  on  tlie  left  hand 
of  the  sliding  section.  For  slitting,  insert  the  cutter  and  stop  on  the 
right  side  of  the  main  stock  and  use  either  fence  for  a  guide. 

For  a  cJiii infer,  insert  the  desired  cutter,  and  tilt  the  rosewood 
guides  on  the  fences  to  the  required  angle.  For  (duiinfcr  heading  use 
in  the  same  manner,  and  gradually  feed  the  cutter  down  l)y  means 
of  the  adjusting  thumb-nut. 

There  are  also  a  number  of 
planelike  tools  such  as  the  follow- 
ing: 

The  s/iolt'esJiare.  Fig.  ILS. 
w(n'ks  on  the  same  princi])le  as  a 
plane,  except  that  the  guiding  sur- 
face is  very  short.  This  adapts  it 
to  work  with  curved  outlines.  It 
is  a  sort  of  regulated  draw-shave. 
It  is  sometimes  made  of  iron  with 
ail  adjustable  mouth,  which  is  a 
coinenieut  form  for  beginnos  to 
use,  and  is  easy  to  sharpen.  The 
pdlli  rn-iiiitl-ev's     spol-esjni re,      Fig. 

IT.t.  wbicli  has  a  wooden  frame,  is  better  suite<l  to  more  careful  work. 
The  method  of  using  ihe  spokeshave  is  shown  ill  Fig.  \2i).  (See  p.  100.) 


Fig-.  120.  Usin^ra  Spokesliave. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


83 


Fig-.  121.    Router-Plane. 


The  router-plane,  Figs.  I'^l  and  122,  is  used  to  lower  a  certain 
part  of  a  surface  and  yet  keep  it  parallel  with  the  surrounding  part, 

and  it  is  j^articularly  useful  in  cutting 
panels,  dadoes,  and  grooves.  The,  cut- 
ter has  to  be  adjusted  for  each  success- 
ive cut.  Where  there  are  a  number  of 
dadoes  to  be  cut  of  the  same  depth,  it 
is  Avise  not  to  finish  them  one  at  a 
time,  but  to  carry  on  the  cutting  of  all 
together,  lowering  the  cutter  after  each 
round.  In  this  way  all  the  dadoes  will 
be  finished  at  exactly  the  same  depth. 

The  dowel-pointer,  Fig.  123,  is  a  convenient  tool  for  removing  the 
sharp  edges  from  the  ends  of  dowel  pins.     It  is  hehl  in  a  brace.     The 
cutter     is     adjustable 
and   is    removable   for 
sharpening. 

The  cornering  tool. 
Fig.  12-1,  is  a  simple 
device  for  rounding 
sharp  corners.  A  cut- 
ter at  each  end  cuts 
both  ways  so  that  it 
can  be  used  with  the 
grain  Avithout  chang- 
ing the  position  of  the  work.    The  depth  of  the  cut  is  fixed. 


Fig-.  122.     Using-  a  Router- Plane. 


2.    BORING  TOOLS. 

Some  boring  tools,  like  awls,  force  the  material  apart,  and  some, 
like  augers,  remove  material. 

The  hrad-awl,  Fig.  125,  is  wedge-shai^ed,  and  hence  care  needs  to 

be  taken  in  using  it  to  keep  the  edge 
across  the  gTain  so  as  to  avoid  splitting 
the  wood,  especially  thin  wood.  The 
size  is  indicated  l)y  the  length  of  the 
l)lade  when  ncAv, — a  stupid  method.  The 
awl  is  useful  for  nmking  small  holes  in 
oft  wood,  and  it  can  readily  be  sharpened  l)y  grinding. 


Fig-.  123 
Dowel- 
Pointer. 


Fig-.  124 
Cornering-  Tool. 


84 


HAXDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


n\ 


Fijr.  125    Brad-Awl.     Fi<r.  126.  Twist-Drill.     Fig-.  12".   Twist-Bit.     Figf.  128.  Gerinaii  (iinilet- 
Bit.     Fig-.  12'>.     Bit-Point  Drill.     Fig.  130.     Auger-Bit. 


'H 


m 


14, 


I 


131  132  133  134  135  13(i 

Fig.  131.  Plug-Cutter.     Fig.  132.    Ceuter-Bit.     Fig.  133.  Foerstner  Auger-Bit.     Fig.  134. 

E-fpausive-Bit.     Fig.  135.   Reamer.     Fig.  130.     Rose  Countersink. 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS.  85 

GimJefs  and  drills  are  alike  in  that  they  cnt  away  material,  but 
unlike  in  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  gimlet  is  on  the  side,  while 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  drill  is  on  the  end. 

Tirist-d rills.  Fig.  12(5,  are  very  hard  and  may  be  used  in  drilling 
metal.  They  are  therefore  useful  where  there  is  danger  of  meeting 
nails,  as  in  repair  work.  Their  sizes  are  indicated  by  a  special  drill 
gage,  Fig.  220,  p.  117. 

Twist-hits,  Fig.  137,  are  like  twist-drills  except  that  they  are  not 
hard  enough  to  use  for  metal.  Their  sizes  are  indicated  on  the  tang 
in  32nds  of  an  inch.  Both  twist-bits  and  drill-bits  have  the  advan- 
tage over  gimlet-bits  in  that  they  are  less  likely  to  split  the  wood. 

Twist-bits  and  twist-drills  are  sharpened  on  a  grindstone,  care 
being  taken  to  preserve  the  original  angle  of  the  cutting  edge  so  that 
the  edge  will  meet  the  wood  and  there  will  be  clearance. 

German  gimlet-hits,  Fig.  128,  have  the  advantage  of  centering 
well.  The  size  is  indicated  on  the  tang  in  33nds  of  an  inch.  They 
are  useful  in  ])oring  holes  for  short  blunt  screws  as  well  as  deep  holes. 
They  cannot  be  sharpened  readily  but  are  cheap  and  easily  replaced. 

Bit-point  drills.  Fig.  129,  are  useful  for  accurate  work,  but  are 
expensive. 

Auger-hits,  Fig.  130,  have  several  important  features.  The  spur 
centers  the  bit  in  its  motion,  and  since  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  pointed 
screw  draws  the  auger  into  the  wood.  Two  sharp  nil)S  on  either  side 
score  the  circle,  out  of  which  the  lips  cut  the  shavings,  which  are 
then  carried  out  of  the  hole  by  the  main  screw  of  the  tool.  The  size 
of  auger-bits  is  indicated  by  a  figure  on  the  tang  in  Kiths  of  an  inch. 
Thus  9  means  a  diameter  of  9/lfi". 

There  are  three  chief  precautions  to  be  taken  in  using  auger-bits. 
(1)  One  is  to  bore  perpendicularly  to  the  surface.  A  good  way  to 
do  this  is  to  lay  the  work  flat,  either  on  the  bench  or  in  the  vise,  and 
sight  first  from  the  front  and  then  from  the  side  of  the  work,  to  see 
that  the  bit  is  perpendicular  l)oth  ways.  The  test  may  also  be  made 
with  the  try-square.  Fig.  137,  or  with  a  plumb-line,  either  by  the 
worker,  or  in  difficult  pieces,  l)y  a  fellow  Avorker.  The  sense  of  per- 
pendicularity, however,  should  constantly  be  cultivated.  (3)  Another 
precaution  is  that,  in  thru  l)oring.  the  lioles  should  not  be  bored  quite 
thru  from  one  side,  lest  the  wood  be  splintered  off  on  the  back.  When 
the  spur  pricks  thru,  the  bit  should  l)e  removed,  the  piece  turned  over, 
and  tlie  l)oring  finished.  i)iitting  the  spur  in  the  hole  which  is  pricked 


86 


HAXDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


tliru  111  l)Oi'iiig  from  tlie  iii'st  side.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  press 
against  the  knolj  of  the  brace  in  boring,  as  the  thread  on  the  spur 
will  ])nll  the  bit  thru,  especially  in  soft  wood.  Indeed,  as  the  bit 
reaches  nearly  thru  the  board,  if  the  knob  is  gently  pulled  back,  then 

when  the  spur  pricks  thru  the  bit  will 
be  ])u]led  out  of  its  hole.  This  avoids 
the  necessity  of  constantly  watching  the 
back  of  the  board  to  see  if  the  spur  is 
tbni.  (o)  In  stop  boring,  as  in  boring 
for  dowels  or  in  making  a  blind  mortise, 
caic  should  be  taken  not  to  bore  thru 
tlic  piece.  For  this  purpose  an  auger- 
bit-gage,  Fig.  219,  p.  11(5,  may  be  used, 
or  a  block  of  wood  of  the  proper  length 
tliru  whieli  a  hole  has  been  boi'cd,  may 
be  slijiped  over  the  bit,  or  the  length  of 
bit  may  l)e  noted  before  boring,  and 
then  the  length  of  the  i)rojecting  por- 
tion deducted,  or  tlie  number  of  turns 
needed  to  reach  the  re(pured  depth  may 
be  counted  on  a  trial  piece.  Tying  a 
stiiiig  around  a  l)it,  or  making  a  chalk 
mark  on  it  is  folly. 
Auger-bits  aie  sliai|»riUMl  with  an  auger-lht  hie.  Fig.  1-12,  p.  90, 
a  small  tlat  hie  witb  two  na.ri'ow  safe  edges  at  one  end  and  two  wide 
safe  edges  at  the  otiiur.  The  "nibs"*  should  be  filed  on  the  inside  so 
that  the  diameter  of  the  cut  may  lemain  as  large  as  that  of  the  body 
of  the  iiit.  The  cutting  li])  slundd  be  sharpened  from  the  side  toward 
tbc  spur,  care  Ijcing  taken  to  ])reserve  the  original  angle  so  as  to  give 
clcaraJice.  If  shaipened  fi'om  the  u])])er  side,  that  is,  the  side  toward 
tbc  sbaid\',  the  nibs  will  ti'ud  to  becom(>  shorter. 

'J'lie  ji/iii/-ciill('r.  Fig.  131,  is  useful  for  cutting  }dugs  with  which 
to  cover  tbc  beads  of  screws  that  are  deeply  ct)untersunk. 

Ccii/rr-hils.  l-'ig.  i;!2.  woi'k'  on  the  samt'  ])rinci])le  as  auger-bits, 
except  tliat  tbc  spurs  ha\'c  no  screw,  and  hence  have  to  l)e  ])uslied 
foi'cibly  into  the  wood.  Sizes  are  given  in  l()ths  of  an  incli.  They 
arc  useful  for  soft  wood,  and  in  boring  large  holes  in  tliin  material 
whicli  is  likely  to  si)lit.  Tliey  ai-c  sharpened  in  the  same  way  as 
auiicr-bils. 


Fii,'-    \^l.     I'-iiil;- a  Try-Square  as 
a  Guidi-  ill  rjoriii^. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


87 


Foerstner  hits.  Fig.  133,  are  peculiar  in  having  no  spur,  but  are 
centered  by  a  sharp  edge  around  the  circumference.  The  size  is  indi- 
cated on  the  tang,  in  16ths  of  an  inch.  They  are  useful  in  boring 
into  end  grain,  and  in  boring  part  way  into  wood  so  thin  that  a  spur 
would  pierce  thru.  They  can  be  sharpened  only  with  special  appli- 
ances. 

Expansive-ljUs,  Fig.  134,  are  so  made  as  to  bore  holes  of  different 
sizes  by  adjusting  the  movable  nib  and  cutter.  There  are  two  sizes, 
the  small  one  with  two  cutters,  boring  from  Y^"  to  1^"  and  the 
large  one  with  tliree  cutters  boring  from  %"  to  4".  They  are  very 
useful  on  particular  occasions, 
but  have  to  be  used  with  care. 

E earners,  Fig.  135,  are  used 
for  enlarging  holes  already 
made.  They  are  made  square, 
half-round  and  six  cornered  in 
shape. 

CoiUltersinls,    Fig.     130,    arc  Fig    138.    Washer-Cutter. 

reamers  in  the  shape  of  a   flat 

cone,  and  are  used  to  make  holes  for  the  heads  of  screws.     The  rose 

countersink  is  the  most  satisfactory  form. 

The  ivasher-cutter.  Fig.  138,  is  useful  not  only  for  cutting  out 
washers  but  also  for  cutting  holes  in  thin  wood.  The  size  is  ad- 
justable. 

3.    CIIOPPIXG    TOOLS. 

The  primitive  celt,  which  was  hardly  more  than  a  wedge,  has  been 
dift'erentiated  into  three  modern  hand  tools,  the  chisel,  see  above,  p. 
53,  the  ax,  Fig.  139,  and  the  adze,  Fig.  141. 

The  ax  has  also  been  differentiated  into  the  hatchet,  with  a  short 
handle,  for  use  with  one  hand,  while  the  ax-handle  is  long,  for  use 
with  two  hands.  Its  shape  is  an  adaption  to  its  manner  of  use.  It 
is  oval  in  order  to  be  strongest  in  the  direction  of  the  blow  and  also 
in  order  that  the  axman  may  feel  and  guide  the  direction  of  the 
blade.  The  curve  at  the  end  is  to  avoid  the  awkward  raising  of  the 
left  hand  at  the  moment  of  striking  the  blow,  and  the  knob  keeps  it 
from  slipping  thru  the  hand.  In  both  ax  and  hatchet  there  is  a  two- 
beveled  edge.  This  is  for  the  sake  of  facility  in  cutting  into  the  wood 
at  anv  ane'le. 


88 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


There  are  two  principal  forms,  the  common  ax  and  the  two  bitted 
ax,  the  hitter  used  chiefi_Y  in  lumbering.  There  is  also  a  wedge- 
shaped  ax  for  splitting  wood.  As  among  all  tools,  there  is  among 
axes  a  great  variety  for  s])ecial  uses. 


Fiy.  13'i.     Ax. 


Fig.   140.     Shiiitrliny  Hatchet.  Fig-.  141.  Car- 

penter's Adze. 


Tlic  hatchet  has,  beside  the  cutting  edge,  a  head  for  driving  nails, 
and  a  notch  f(n-  drawing  them,  thus  comlnning  three  tools  in  one. 
The  shingling  liatchet.  Fig.  140,  is  a  type  of  this. 

The  ailze,  the  carpenter's  honse  adze.  Fig.  141.  is  flat  on  the  lower 
side,  since  its  use  is  for  straiti'htenino-  snrfaces. 


WOOD    IIAXD   TOOLS. 


89 


WOOD 
References : * 

(1)  Cutting. 
Goss,   p.   22. 

Chisel. 

Barnaid,   pp.   .i!)-73. 
Seidell,    pp.    44-50.    14.1-147. 
Barter,   pp.   93-9(). 
Griffith,   pp.   .5.3-04. 

Knife. 

Barnard,    pp.   48-58. 
Saw. 

Griffith,   pp.   20-27. 

Barnard,    pp.    114-124. 

Selden,    pp.    41-43.    179-182. 

Wheeler,    pp.   400-473. 

Hammacher,   p]).   300-300. 
Plane. 

Barnard.    i)p.    74-80. 

Selden.    pp.    11-20.    105-175. 

Sickels  pp.  72-75,   IK!. 

Wheeler,    pp.   445-458. 

Hammacher,   pp.    377-400. 

(2)  Boring  Tools. 
Barnard,   pp.    125-135. 
Goss,   pp.    53-59. 
Griffith,  pp.  47-52. 

(3)  Chopping  Tools. 
Barnard,  pp.  80-88. 


HAND    TOOLS. 


Smith.   R.   H.,   pp.   1-8. 

Goss,  pp.   20-26. 
Sickels,  pp.  64-67. 
Wheeler,  357,  421,  442. 


Selden.   pp.   26-28,    158. 

Goss,   pp.    26-41. 
Sickels,  pp.  76-79,  84. 
Smith,  R.  H..  43-55. 
Disston,  pp.    129-138. 


Smith.  R.   H..   pp.   10-31. 
Larsson,  p.  19. 
Goss,  pp.  41-52. 
Barter,  pp.  96-109. 
(Griffith,   pp.   28-45. 

Selden.  pp.   38-40.    141-144. 
Wheeler,   pp.    353-356. 


^For   general    liibliography   see  p.   4. 


Chapter  IV,  Continued. 
WOOD  HAXD  TOOLS. 

-t.    SCRAPING    TOOLS. 

Scraping  tools  are  of  such  nature  that  they  can  only  al)ra(]e  or 
smooth  surfaces. 

Files.  Figs.  l-tS-l-tG,  are  formed  with  a  series  of  cutting  edges  or 
teeth.   These  teeth  are  cut  when  tlie  metal  is  soft  and  cold  and  then  tlie 


^ 


Fifr.  142. 
FifT.  144. 
Fig.  146. 


Auger-Bit-Filf. 
Three-Square  Siiis-Je-Cut  File. 
Double-Cut  File. 


Fig.  143.  Single-Cut  Blunt,  Flat.  Bastard  Fih 
Fig.  145.  Open  Cut.  Taper.  Half-Round  FiKv 
Fig.  147.     Cabinet  Wood-Rasp. 


Fig.  148.     File-Card. 


tool  is  hardened.  There  are  in  use  at  least  three  thousand  varities  ot' 
tiles,  each  of  whicli  is  adajjfed  to  its  ])articular  purpot^e.  Lengths  are 
measiii'ed  from  point  to  heel  exeliisive  of  the  tang.  They  are  classified: 
(1)  according  to  tiieii'  outlines  into  Miiiit.  (i.  c.,  Iiaxing  a  uniform 
<-ross-sectioii  tliiaiout  ) .  and  taju'i-:   ( "i )   accoiding  to  ihe  .-^hapc  of  theii' 

90 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS. 


91 


■I 


rig.  u'K 

Diagram  of  a  Rasp  Tooth. 
Cross-Section  of  a  Siiig-le-Cut 
File. 


cross-section,  into  flat,  square,  three-sqnare  or  triangular,  knife,  round 
or  rat-tail,  half-round,  etc.;  (3)  according  to  the  manner  of  their 
serrations,  into  single  cut  or  "float"  (having  single,  unbroken,  paral- 
lel, chisel  cuts  across  the  surface),  double-cut,  (having  two  sets  of 
chisel  cuts  crossing  each  other  ol)liquelY,)  oj^en  cut,  (having  series  of 

parallel    cuts,    slightly    staggered,)    and 
safe  edge,  (or  side,)  having  one  or  more 
uncut   surfaces;    and    (4)    according  to 
tlie  fineness  of  the  cut,   as  rough,  bas- 
tard,   second    cut,    smooth,    and    dead 
smooth.      The   '^"'mill  file."   a   very  com- 
mon   form,    is    a    flat,    tapered,    single- 
cut  fllf. 
Rasps,  Fig.  147,  differ  from  files  in  that  instead  of  having  cutting 
teeth  made  by  lines,  coarse  projections  are  made  by  making  indenta- 
tions with  a  triangular  point  when  the  iron  is  soft.     The  difference 
between  files  and  rasps  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  14!). 

It  is  a  good  rule  that  files  and  rasps  are  to  be  used  on  wood  only 
as  a  last  resort,  when  no  cutting  tool  will  serve.  Great  care  must  be 
taken  to  file  flat,  not  letting  the  tool  rock.  It  is  better  to  file  only  on 
the  forward  stroke,  for  that  is  the  way  the  teeth  are  made  to  cut,  and 
a  flatter  surface  is  more  likely  to  be  obtained. 

Both  files  and  rasps  can  be  cleaned  with  a 
file-card.  Fig.  148.  Tliey  are  sometimes  sharp- 
ened with  a  sandblast,  but  ordinarily  when  dull 
are  discarded. 

Scrapers  are  thin,  flat  pieces  of  steel.     They 
may  be  rectangular,  or  some  of  the  edges  may 
l)e  curved.     For  scraping  hollow  surfaces  curved 
scrapers  of  various  shapes  are  necessary.     Con- 
venient shapes  are  shown  in  Fig.  150.     The  cut- 
ting power  of  scrapers  depends  upon  the  delicate  burr  or  feather  along 
their  edges.     When  properly  sharjiened  they  take  off  not  dust  but  fine 
shavings.    Scrapers  are  particularly  useful  in  smoothing  cross-grained 
pieces  of  wood,  and  in  cleaning  off  glue,  old  varnish,  etc. 

There  are  various  devices  for  holding  scrapers  in  frames  or  han- 
dles, such  as  the  scraper-plane.  Fig.  111.  p.  79,  the  veneer-scraper, 
and  box-scrapers.  The  veneer-scraper.  Fig.  151,  has  the  advantage 
that  the  blade  may  be  sprung  to  a  slight  curve  by  a  thumb-screw  in 


Fig-.  150. 
Molding-Scrapers. 


92 


IIAXDWOKK    IX    WOOD. 


Fig-.  151.     Usinpr  a  Veneer- 
Scraper. 


the  middle  of  tlu'  l)Mek.  just  ;is  an  ordinary  scraper  is  wlieii  lield  in 
the  hands. 

Jn   u^e,   FliS-    l-">v.   tlic   seraper  may   he  eithei'   pushed   oi-   ])id  cd. 
Wlicii   ])iis1i(m1.  ilic  sciaper  is  lield   (h-ndy   in  hotli  liands,  the  lingers 

nil  the  I'niward  and  the  thnndjs 
IM  ^■■■MHj^H^MHHVi  on   the  hack  side.      It   is  tilted 

I  '■tim^^lffm  '%^m\  '^"^   chatter  and  is  howt'd  hack 

-■•*^-^^*'*  ^^-  iMr  sh'ghtiy,     hy     pics^urc     of     the 

thiiinhs.  so  that  theic  is  no 
lisle  of  the  co;ncis  digu-inu'  in. 
When     |ndlci|    llic    position    is 

1  CVi'lStMh 

<  )nc  method  of  sliai  peiiim;" 
the  scraper  is  as  follows:  the  scraper  is  Hist  hrought  to  the  desired 
shape,  sti'aight  or  eiiived.  This  mav  he  done  either  hv  giiiKhng  on 
the  grindstone  or  hy  liliiig  with  a  smooth.  Hat  tie.  tlie  scraper,  while 
held  in  a  vise.  The  vi\^j:v  is  then  carefully  diaw-filed.  i.  e..  the  Hie.  a 
smooth  one.  is  held  (one  hand  at  each  end)  directly  at  light  angh's 
to  the  edge  of  the  scia|'ei'.  i'dg.  l^;!.  and  moved  sidewise  from  end  to 
end  (d'  the  sciaper.  until  the  edge  is  (|uite  S(piare  with  the  sides. 
Tlien  the  sciaper  is  laid  Hat  on  the  oilstone  and  ruhhed.  Hrst  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other,  till  the  sides  ;iri'  hiight  and  smooth  along 
the  i'i]i:r.  l-dg.  i:)4.  Then  it  is 
set  oil  ('i\^j:i'  oil  the  stone  and 
rilhhed  till  theie  ale  two  slcirp 
Sipiare  coiners  all  along  the 
edge.  l-dg.  1.-).-).  'jdiell  it  is  put 
ill  the  \isc  jigaiii  ami  hy  mean- 
of  a  hiirnishrr.  or  sciaper 
steel,  hoth  of  these  corners  aic 
(••irel'iilh'  t  ill  lied  or  h  'iit  over 
so  as  to  hiiin  a  Hue  liinr.  This 
is  done  h\"  tipping  the  scrajier 
steel  at  a  slight  angle  with  the  edge  and  rulihing  it  lirinly  along  the 
sharp  corner,   j-'ig.    1  •")(;. 

To  I'esharpen   the  scia]ier  it   is  not  necessaiy  to  Hie  it  afresh  e\cry 
time,   hut   onlv   to    flatten    out    the  e<lgcs   and    turn   them    again    with 


Fig-.  152.     Usinjr  a  Cabinet- 
Scraper 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


93 


Fig.  153. 


Sharpening-  a  Cabinet-Scraper: 
1st  Step,  Drawfiling. 


slightly  more  bevel.     Instead  of  using  the  oi'stone  an  easier,  tho  less 
perfect,  way  to  flatten  out  the  burr  on  the  edges  is  to  lay  the  scraper 
flat  on  the  bench  near  the  edge.    The  scraper  steel  is  then  passed  rap- 
idly to  and  fro  on  the  flat  side 
of  the  scraper.  Fig.  157.     Af- 
ter  that   the   edge   should   be 
turned  as  before. 

Sandpaper.  The  "sand" 
is  crushed  quartz  and  is  very 
hard  and  sharp.  Other  mate- 
rials on  paper  or  cloth  are  also 
used,  as  carborundum,  emery, 
and  so  on.  Sandpaper  comes 
in  various  grades  of  coarse- 
ness from  No.  00  (the  finest) 

to  No.  3,  indicated  on  the  back  of  each  sheet.  For  ordinary  purposes 
No.  00  and  No.  1  are  sufficient.  Sandpaper  sheets  may  readily  be 
torn  by  placing  the  sanded  side  down,  one-half  of  the  sheet  project- 
ing over  the  square  edge  of  the  bench.  With  a  quick  downward  mo- 
tion the  projecting  portion 
easily  parts.  Or  it  may  be  torn 
straight  by  laying  the  sandpa- 
per on  a  bench,  sand  side  down, 
holding  the  teeth  of  a  back- 
saw  along  the  line  to  be  torn. 
Tn  this  case,  the  smooth  surface 
of  the  sandpaper  would  be  against  the  saw. 

Sandpaper  should  never  be  used  to  scrape  and  scrub  work  into 
shape,  but  only  to  obtain  an  extra  smoothness.    Nor  ordinarily  should 
it  be  used  on  a  piece  of  wood  until  all  the  work  with  cutting  tools 
is    done,   for   the   fine   particles 
of  sand  remaining  in  the  wood 
dull     the     edge     of     the     tool. 
Sometimes  in  a  piece  of  cross- 
grained  wood  rough  places  will 
be  discovered   by  sandpapering. 
The    surface     should    then    be 
wiped  free  of  sand  and  scraped  „.    ,..    ^,  .         _,  , . 

^  '  Fitr.  l55.     Sharpening  a  Cabinet-Scraper 

before       using       a       CUttino-       tool  3rd  step.  Removing  the  Wire-Edge. 


<  ___^ 

-===s=-^- 

^^^^-^ 

l~z = 

■ ^= 

^^ 

Fig.  154. 


Sharpening  a  Cabinet-Scraper: 
2nd  Step,  Whetting. 


94 


HANDWORK    TX    WOOD. 


/ 

r 

/^^ 

r 

)\ 

^ 

^i 

V 

Fig.  ISo.     Sliarpi'iiintr  a  Cabiiiet-Scrapt-r: 
-Ith  Step.  Tuniiiiir  ilie  Edge 


again.  In  oidcr  to  avoid  cross  scratclies,  work  sliould  be  "sandecr" 
witli  the  grain,  even  if  tliis  takes  niueli  trouble.  For  flat  surfaces, 
and  to  touch  off  edges,  it  is  best  to  wra})  the  sand])aper  over  a  rec- 
tangular bh)ck  <d'  wood,  of  which  the  coi'Uers  are  slightly  rounded,  or 

it  may  be  fitted  over  special 
shapes  of  wood  for  s})ecia]ly 
shaped  surfaces.  The  objec- 
tion to  using  the  thumb  or 
lingeis  instead  of  a  l)lock,  is 
ihat  the  soft  ])ortions  of  the 
wood  are  cut  down  faster  than 
the  hai'fl  portions,  whereas  the 
use  of  a  l)lock  tends  to  keep  the 
suiface  even. 

>7rr/  ivi>()l  is  made  liy  tui'u- 
ing  off  line  sluivings  from  the 
edges  of  a  number  of  thin  discs 
of  steel,  held  together  in  a 
lathe.  There  are  vai'ious  grades  of  coarseness,  from  No.  0(»  to  Xo.  3. 
Its  uses  ai'c  manifold  :  as  a  substitute  for  sand])apei",  especially  on 
cui'ved  sui  faces,  tti  clean  up  )iaiiit.  and  to  rub  down  shellac  to  an 
"egg-shell"  finish.  Like  sandpa])er  it  sliould  not  be  used  till  all  the 
work  with  cutting  tools  is  done.  It  can  be  manipulated  until  utteidy 
worn  out. 

5.    POUXDIXd    TOOLS. 

The  litiiiniicr  consists  of  two  distinct  ])arts,  the  head  and  the 
handle.  The  head  is  made  of  steel,  so  hard  that  it  will  not  be  in- 
dented l)y  hitting  against  nails  or  the  butt  of  nailsets,  ])unches,  etc., 
which  ai'c  com])aratively  soft.  It  can  easily  be  injured  tho,  by  l)eing 
driven  against  steel  harder  than 
itself.  The  handle  is  of  hick- 
0Y\  and  of  an  oval  shape  to 
|u-e\('nt  its  twisting  in  the  hand. 

Ilaiiiinei's  may  be  classified 
as  follows  :  (  1  )  hauimei  s  fof 
si  I'iking  blows  oidy ;  as.  f  he 
l)lacksuiitirs     hauimei'     and     the 

'.;tone-niasoM"s    hauilliel',    ami     CI)  Fig.  157.      Kesharpening  a  Cabiaet-Scrapen 

^  Flattening  the  Edge. 


AVOOD    HAXD   TOOLS. 


95 


compound  liaiuiueis,  which  consist  of  two  tools  combined,  tlie  face  foi' 
striking,  and  the  "peen"  which  may  be  a  chiw,  pick,  wedge,  shovel, 
cliisel,  awl  or  loimd  head  for  other  uses.  There  are  altogether  about 
iifty  styles  of  hammers  varying  in  size  from  a  jeweler's  hammer  to  a 
blacksmith's  great  straight-handled  sledge-hammer,  weighing  twenty 
pounds  or  niore.  They  are  named  mostly  according  to  their  uses; 
as,  the  riveting-hammer,  Fig.  159,  the  upholsterer's  hammer,  Fig. 
160,  the  veneering-hammer.  Fig.  K)'^.  etc.  Magnetized  hamuiers, 
Fig.  1()1,  are  used  in  many  trades  for  diiving  brads  and  tacks,  where 
it  is  hard  to  ho'd  them  in  place  with  the  [ingers. 


Fig-.  158.     Claw-Hammer, 

Fig-.  IbO.     Upholster's  Hanitner. 


F\g.  162      Veneeriiii,'--Haninier. 


Fig-.  i;<J.     Rivfting-Hamnier. 
Fig-.  161.     Magnetized  Hammer. 


In  the  "bell-faced"  hammer,  the  face  is  slightly  convex,  in  order 
that  the  last  blow  in  driving  nails  may  set  the  nail-head  below  the 
surface.  It  is  more  difficult  to  strike  a  square  blow  with  it  than  with 
a  plain-faced  hammer.  For  ordinary  woodwork  the  plain-faced,  that 
is,  flat-faced  claw-hammer.  Fig.  158,  is  best.  It  is  commonly  used  in 
carpenter  work. 

It  is  essential  that  the  face  of  the  hammer  be  kept  free  from  glue 
in  order  to  avoid   its  sticking  on  the  nail-head  and  so  bending  the 


96 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


Fig'.  lt)3.     Drawing  a  Nail  witli 
Claw-Hammer. 


nail.  Hammers  should  be  used  to  liit  iron  only;  for  hitting  wood, 
mallets  are  used.  In  striking  with  the  hammer,  the  wrist,  the  elbow 
and  the  shoulder  are  one  or  all  brought  into  play,  according  to  the 

liardness  of  the  blow.  The  essential 
precautions  are  that  the  handle  be 
grasped  at  the  end,  that  the  blow  be 
square  and  quick,  and  that  the  wood 
be  not  injured.  At  the  last  blow  the 
liammer  should  not  follow  the  nail,  but 
should  be  jjrought  back  with  a  quick 
rebound.  To  send  the  nail  below  the 
surface,  a  nailset  is  used.  (See  below.) 
The  claw  is  for  extracting  nails. 
To  protect  tlie  wood  in  withdrawing  a 
nail  a  block  may  be  put  under  the 
liammer-head.  When  a  nail  is  partly 
drawn,  the  leverage  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  continuing  to  block  up  in  this  way.  Fig.  163. 

The  mallet.  Fig.  16-i,  differs  from  the  hammer  in  having  a  wooden 
instead  of  a  steel  head.  A  nuiul  or  beetle  is  a  heavy  wooden  mallet. 
The  effect  of  the  blow  of  a  nuillet  is  quite  different  from  that  of  a 
hammer,  in  that  the  force 
is  exerted  more  gradually ; 
whereas  the  effect  of  the  ham- 
mer blow  is  direct,  immediate, 
and  local,  and  is  taken  up  at 
once.  But  a  mallet  continues 
to  act  after  the  first  impulse, 
pushing,  as  it  were.  This  is 
because  of  the  elasticity  of  the 
head.  A  chisel,  therefore, 
should  always  be  driven  with 
a  mallet,  foi'  the  chisel  handle 
would  soon  go  to  pieces  under 
the  blows  of  a  hammer,  be- 
cause of  their  suddenness : 
whereas  the  mallet  blow  which 
is  slower  Avill  not  only  drive 
the  blade  deo]3oi'  with  the  same  Fig.  io4. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


97 


force,  but  will  not  injure  the  handle  so  rapidly'.  Mallet-heads  are 
made  square,  C3dindrical,  and  barrel-shaped.  Carver's  mallets  are 
often  turned  from  one  piece,  hammer  and  head  on  one  axis. 

Nailsets,  Fig.  165,  are  made  Avith  hardened  points,  but  softer 
butts,  so  that  the  hammer  will  not  be  injured.  They  were  formerly 
made  square  when  nail  heads 
were  square,  but  now  round 
ones  are  common.  To  obviate 
shipping,  some  have  "cup 
points,''  that  is,  with  a  con- 
cave tip,  and  some  spur  points. 

To  keep  the  nailset  in  its 
place  on  the  nail-head  it  may 
be  held  closely  against  the 
third  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
Avhich  rests  on  the  wood  close 
to  the  nail.  When  a  nailset 
is  lacking,  the  head  of  a  brad, 
held  nearly  flat,  may  be  used, 
inff  the  wood. 


Fig.  165.     Using  a  Nailset. 


But  care  is  necessarv  to  avoid  bruis- 


6.    HOLDING    TOOLS. 

A.  Tools  for  Holding  AYorl-. 

The  advance  in  ease  of  handworking  may  largely  Ije  measured  by 
the  facilities  for  holding  materials  or  other  tools.  The  primitive 
man  used  no  devices  for  holding  except  his  hands  and  feet.  The 
Japanese,  who  perhaps  are  the  most  skilful  of  joiners,  still  largely 
use  their  fingers  and  toes.  On  the  other  hand,  Anglo-Saxons  have 
developed  an  enormous  variety  of  methods  for  holding  work  and  tools. 

Benches.  The  essential  features  of  a  work-bench  are  a  firm,  steady 
table  with  a  vise  and  places  for  tools.  The  joints  are  either  pinned 
or  wedged  mortise-and-tenon,  or  draw-bolt  joints.  The  best  benches 
are  made  of  maple,  the  tops  being  strips  joined  or  tbngued-and- 
gTOOved  together.  It  is  common  also  to  have  a  trough  at  the  back 
of  the  top  of  the  bench,  i.  e.,  a  space  fi"  or  8"  wide,  set  lower  than 
the  upper  surface,  in  which  tools  may  be  placed  so  as  not  to  roll  off. 
A  low  pillow,  fastened  at  the  left  hand  end  of  the  trough,  on  which 
to  set  planes  in  order  that  the  edge  of  the  cutter  may  not  be  injured, 
is  an   advantage.      The   tool-rack   is   of  cai)ital   imiiovtance.      It   has 


98 


HANDWOEK    IX    WOOD. 


Piff.  Ibb.     Bench  made  with  Pinned  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joints,  Low  Back. 


V'lg.  167.T  Wood  working-  Bench  used  at  Pratt  Institute,  Showing- 
Self-Adjusting-  Upright  Vise. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


99 


been  common  in  school  benches  to  affix  it  to  a  board,  which  rises  con- 
siderably  above  the  top   of  the  bench,   Fig.    169,  but  a  better  plan 
is  to  have  the  top   of  it   no  higher  than  the  bench-top,   Fig.    166. 
Then  the   light  on  the  bench 
is  not   obscured,   and  when   a 
fiat    top    is    needed    for    large 
work  it  can  readily  be  had  by 
removing    the     tools.      E'abo- 
rate   benches   with   lock   draw- 
ers are  also  much  used  in  the 
shops  of  large  city  schools. 

Visc.'^  for  holding  wood  are 
of  three  general  styles,  (1) 
those  with  an  upright  wooden 

jaw%  Fig.  167,  which  holds  wide  pieces  of  w^ork  well.  They  are  now 
made  with  an  autouu^tic  adjusting  device  by  Avhich  the  jaw  and  the 
face  of  the  bench  are  kept  parallel;  (2)  wooden  vises  with  a  hori- 
zontal jaw.  guided  by  parallel  runners.  Fig.  166,  and,  (3)  metal 
rapid-acting  vises.  Fig.  168.    The  latter  are  the  most  durable  and  in 


Fig-.  168. 
A  Rapid-Acting-  Vise. 


Fig-.  169.     Holding-  a  Large  Board  in   Vise  for  Planing-. 


most  respects  more  convenient.     Special  vises  are  also  made  for  wood- 
carvers,  for  saw-filing,  etc. 

The  best  woodworking  benches  are  equipped  Avith  both  side-  and 
tail-vises.     The  tail-vise  is  supplemented  by  movable  bench-stops  for 


100 


haxd\vui;k  IX  wood. 


Fitr.  no.     Saw- Horse. 


holding  pieces  of  diltei-ent  lengths.  In  planing  the  side  of  a  board 
it  is  held  in  place  between  the  tail-vise  and  one  of  the  bench-stops.  A 
board   should  not  be  squeezed  sidewise   between   the  jaws   of  a  vise 

when  it  is  to  be  jilaned,  lest  it 
be  bent  out  of  shape.  In  plan- 
ing the  edge  of  a  board  it  is 
ordinarily  held  in  the  side- 
vise.  A  long  board,  one  end 
of  which  is  in  the  vise,  may 
also  need  to  be  supported  at 
the  other  end.  This  may  be 
done  ]iy  clamping  to  it  a  hand- 
screw,  the  jaw  of  which  rests 
on  thr  top  of  the  bench,  Fig. 
KiM.  Wlien  the  vise  is  likely 
to  \k'  twisted  out  of  square  by 
till'  insertion  of  a  piece  of  wood 
at  one  end  of  it,  it  is  well  to 
insert  another  piece  of  equal  thickness  at  the  other  end  of  the  vise 
to  keep  it  square,  as  in  Fig.  130,  p.  82.  In  this  case,  (Fig.  120,)  the 
extra  ]nece  also  supports  the  piece  being  worked  upon. 

Tlie  vise  is  also  of  great  use  in  carrying  on  many  other  processes, 
hut  a  good  worknum  does  not 
use  it  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
saw-horse  and  bench-hook. 

Horses  are  of  great  use 
))ot]i  for  the  rough  sawing  of 
material  and  in  supporting- 
large  pieces  during  the  process 
of  construction.  The  common 
form  is  shown  in  Fig.  170. 
but  a  more  convenient  form 
for  sawing  has  an  o]ien  top,  as 
in  Fig.  171. 

Tlie  pli-l iirc-frfimc-vise.  Fig. 
172.  is  a  vciy  coMvenient  tool 

for  making  iiiitercd  joints,  as  in  picture-frames.  The  vise  holds  two 
sides  lii'inly  so  that  after  gluing  they  nuiy  be  either  nailed  together 
or  a   spline   inserted    in  a   saw  cut  ]n'eviously  made.     See   Fig.   268, 


Fig.  171.     SawHorse. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


101 


Fiy.  172. 
Picture-Frame-Vise. 


No.  55,  p.  181.  If  the  last  joint  in  a  picture-frame  does  not  quite 
match,  a  kerf  ma}^  be  sawn  at  the  junction  of  the  two  pieces,  which 
can  then  be  drawn  close  together. 

Handscrcu's,  Fig.  1T3,  consist  of  four  parts,  the  shoulder  jaw  and 

the  screw  jaw,  made  of  maple, 
and  the  end  spindle  and  the 
middle  spindle,  made  of  hick- 
ory. The  parts  when  broken, 
can  be  bought  separately. 
Handscrews  vary  in  size  from 
those  with  jaws  four  inches 
long  to  those  with  jaws  twenty- 
two  inches  long.  The  best  kind 
are  oiled  so  that  glue  will  not 
adhere  to  them.  In  adjusting 
the  jaws,  if  the  handle  of  the 
middle  spindle  is  held  in  one 
hand,  and  the  handle  of  the 
end  spindle  in  the  other  hand,  and  both  are  revolved  together,  the 
jaws  nuiy  be  closed  or  opened  evenly,  Fig.  171.  In  use  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  jaws  parallel,  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  pres- 
sure and  to  prevent  the  spindles  from  being  broken.  It  is  always 
important  to  have  the  jaws  press  on  the  work  evenly.  To  secure  this, 
the    middle    spindle    should    be 

tightened    first,    and    then    the         

end  spindle.  Handscrews  are 
convenient  for  a  great  variety 
of  uses,  as  clamping  up  glued 
pieces,  holding  pieces  together 
temporarily  for  boring.  Fig. 
247,  p,  153,  holding  work  at 
any  desired  angle  in  the  vise, 
as  for  chamfering  or  beveling, 
Fig.  175,  etc. 

Clamps    are    made    of    both 
wood  and  iron,  the  most  satis- 
factory for   speed,   strength,   and   durability   are   steel-bar  carpenter 
clamps.  Fig.  176.     They  vary  in  length  from  1>^  ft.  to  8  ft.     The 
separate  parts  are  the  steel  bar  A,  the  cast-iron  frame  B,  the  tip  C 


A 


mippl£ 
Si'inoLC 

cm 


Lff 


W".ZZ-.2 


\ 


emu 


ZW   5PiriOLE 


Fiff.  173.     Handscrew. 


102 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


174.     Adjusting-  Handscrew. 


into  which  fits  the  screw  D,  on  the  other  end  of  wliicli  is  the  crank  E, 

and  the  slide  F  with  its  dog  G,  which  engac-  -  r^  t!'p  notches  on  the 

bar.      Any  part,  if  broken,  can 
1)e  rophieed   separately. 

I  •on  Uitudscrcirs,  also 
called  ('  clamps  and  carriage- 
makers'  clamps,  Fig.  177,  are 
useful  in  certain  kinds  of  work, 
as  in  gluing  in  special  ])laces 
and  in  wood-carving.  All  iron 
clamps  need  blocks  of  soft 
wood  to  be  placed  between  them 
and  the  finished  work. 

Pinch-dogs,  Fig.  178,  are  a 
convenient  device  for  drawing 
together  two  pieces  of  wood, 
when  injury  to  the  surfaces  in 

which  they  are  driven  does  not  matter.     They  vary  in  size  from  ^4" 

to  2j4"-     I'oi'  ordinary  purposes  the  smallest  size  is  sufficient.     For 

especially      fine      work. 

double-]  lointed       tacks, 

properly  filed,  are  con- 
venient. 

The       hench-liDol-. 

Fig.    17!'.    is    a    sinijilc 

device        for        holding 

firndy    small    ])ieces    of 

work     when     they     arc 

being      sawn,     chiseled. 

etc.      It   also   saves   the 

bench      from      b  e  i  n  g 

mai'i'ed.        The     angles 

should    I)e   ke])t   exactly 

s<puire. 

The     inllrr-ho.r.    I'ig. 

180,  is  a  similai'  device 

with   1he   addition   of   a 

guide  foi'  the  saw.  The 

iron  iiiUcr-hox.  Fig.  181, 


UsiiiiLr  a  Haiul^crcw  to  hold  a 
lioard  at  an   Angle. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


103 


with   the  saw   adjustable   to   various   angles,   insures   accurate   work. 
Such  tools   as  pliers.   Fig.    183,  pincers,  Fig.    183,   and   nippers. 


Piy.  176.     Stoel-Bar  Carpenter's  Clamp,     a.  Steel  Bar.     b.  Frame, 
c.  Tip.     d.  Screw,     e.  Crank,     f.  Slide,    g.  Dog. 


Fig.  184,  made  for  gripping  iron,  are  often  useful  in  the  woodwork- 
ing shop.  So  are  various  sorts  of  tvrenches;  as  fixed,  socketed,  ad- 
justable, monkey-  and  pipe-wrenches. 

B.  Tools  for  holding  other  tools. 

The  trace  or  hit-stock.  Fig.  185,  holds  all  sorts  of  boring  tools 
as   well   as  screwdrivers,   dowel-pointers,   etc.     The   simple  brace   or 

bit-stock  consists  of  a  chuck,  a 
handle,  and  a  knob,  and  is  suf- 
ficient for  ordinary  use;  but 
the  ratchet-brace  enables  the 
user  to  bore  near  to  surfaces 
or  corners  where  a  complete 
sweep  cannot  be  made.  It  is 
also  useful  where  sufficient 
power  can  be  applied  only  at 
one  part  of  the  sweep.  By 
means  of  pawls  which  engage 
in  the  ratchet-wheel,  the  bit 
can  be  turned  in  either  direc- 
Tlie  size  of  the 


Fig.  11 


Iron  Handscrew,  (Carriage- 
Maker's  Clamp). 


tion  at  the  will  of  the  user 
brace  is  indicated  by  the  ''sweep,''  that  is,  the 
diameter  of  the  circle  thru  which  the  swinging 
handle  turns.  To  insert  a  bit  or  other  tool. 
Fig.  186,  grasp  firmly  with  one  hand  the  sleeve 
of  the  chuck  pointing  it  upward,  and  revolve 
the  handle  with  the  other  hand,  unscrewing  the 


'  1 

/   \l 

Fig-.  178.     Pinch-Uog-. 


104 


HANDWOKK    IX    WOOD. 


s'eeve  until  the  jaws  open  enough  to  admit  the  whole  tang  of  the  bit. 
Then  reverse  the  motion  and  the  bit  will  be  held  tightly  in  place. 


Fiy.  179.     Heiich-Hook. 


Fif,"^.  ISO.     Miter-Box. 


Various  hand-,  l)reast-.  l)encli-,  Itow-drills  and  automatic  drills  are  of 
use  in  doing  quick  work  and  for  l)oring  small  holes,  Fig.  187. 

The  screwdriver,  Fig.  188,  is  a  sort 
of  holding  tool  for  turning,  and  so  driv- 
ing screws.  Various  devices  have  been 
tried  to  ])reveiit  the  twisting  in  the 
handle.  This  is  now  practically  assured 
in  various  makes.  The  other  important 
Hiaiter  in  a  screwdriver  is  that  the 
point  he  of  the  right  temper,  so  as 
neither  to  hend  nor  to  Itrcak.  If  the  corners  break  they  can  be  re- 
OTOund.  l)iit  care  should  l)c  taken  not  to  nutke  the  anale  too  obtuse 
or  the  dri\er  will  slip  out  of  the  slot  in  the  screw-head.  The  bevel 
should  ha\('  a  long  taper.  A 
shop  should  be  e(pd])ped  with 
different  sizes  of  serewdriveis 
to  ht  the  different  sizes  of 
screws.  Screwdrivers  vary  in 
size,  the  shank  ranging  in 
length  fi-oui  -Ij'."  to  is".  A 
long  screwdriver  is  more  pow- 
erful than  a  short  one.  for  the 


Fig-.  ISl.     Iron  Miter-Box. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


105 


screwdriver  is  rarely  exactly  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the  screw,  but 
the  handle  revolves  in  a  circle.    This  means  an  increased  leverage,  so 

that  the  longer  the  screwdriver, 
the  o-reater  the  leverage. 


For  heavy  work,  screwdriver-bits.  Fig.  189,  in  a  bit-stock  are  use- 
ful, and  for  quick  work,  the  spiral  screwdriver,  Fig.  190,  and  for 
small  work,  the  ratchet-screwdriver. 


It 

of  the 


7.    MEASURING   AND    MARKING    TOOLS. 

is  a  long  step  from  the  time  when  one  inch  meant  the  width 
thumb,  and  one  foot  meant  the  length  of  the  foot,  to  the  meas- 
uring of  distances  and  of  angles  which 
vary  almost  infinitesimally.  Xo  such 
accuracy  is  necessary  in  measuring  wood 
as  in  measuring  metal,  but  still  there 
is  a  considerable  variety  of  tools  for 
this  purpose. 

For   measuring    distances,    the    rule, 

Mff^  Fig.   191,   is  the   one  in  most   common 

%fc^h.  ^^^'^-      -"-t   ^®   usually   made   of    boxwood. 

^^  For   convenience   it  is  hinged   so   as   to 

fold.     A  rule  is  called  "two-fold"  when 

it    is   made   of   two    pieces,   "four-fold" 

when  made  of  four  pieces,  etc.     ^Yhen 

measuring  or  marking  from   it,   it  can 

be  used  more  accurately   by  turning  it 

on  edge,  so  that  the  lines  of  the  gradu- 

_.    ,„,    -       ,.         „.,  .    „.    ,       ations    mav    come    directlv    a^'ainst    the 

Fig.  186.    Iii-ierting-  a  Bit  in  Stock.  ■  ■         '^ 


106 


HANDWORK    IX    "WOOD. 


Fis-.  187.     Haiid-DriU 


Fig-.  1S8.     Screwdriver. 
Fig-.  189.     Screwdriver-Bit. 
Fig-.  1^0.     Si>iral  ScrewdriTer. 


B 


ffln 


J 


Fiy.  1''2.     Sled    lieiicli-Kule. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


107 


Fig-.  103.     Back  of  Steel 
Square,  Brace  Measure. 


work.     The  one  in  most  com- 
mon nse  in  school  shops,  is  a 
two-foot,  two-fold  rule.    Some 
instructors  prefer  to  have  pu- 
pils use  a   four-fold  rule,   be- 
cause  that    is    the   form    com- 
monly used  in  the  woodwork- 
ing trades.     Steel  bench-rules. 
Fig.    193,    are    satisfactory    in 
school  work  because  unbreakable  and  because  thev  do 
not  disappear  so  rapidly  as  pocket  rules.    They  need 
to  be  burnished  occasionally. 

The  steel  square,  Figs.  193,  191,  196,  197,  is 
useful,  not  only  as  a  straight-edge  and  try-square, 
but  also  for  a  number  of  graduations  and  tables 
which  are  stamped  on  it.  There  are  various  forms, 
but  tlu'  one  in  most  common  use  consists  of  a  b  ade 
or  "body"  24"x2"  and  a  "tongue,"  l()"xl^",  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  Sargent's  trade  number  for  this 
form  is  100.  Tt  includes  graduations  in  hundredths, 
thirty-seconds,  sixteenths,  twelfths,  tenths,  and  eighths 
of  an  inch,  also  a  brace-measure,  an  eight-square 
measure,  and  the  Essex  board-measure.  Another  style, 
instead  of  an  Essex  board-measure,  and  the  hun- 
dredths graduation  has  a  rafter-table.  The  side  upon 
which  the  name  of  the  maker  is  stamped,  is  called 
the  "face,"'  and  the  reverse  side  the  "back."' 

The  brace-measure  is  to  be  found  along  the  center 
of  the  ))ack  of  the  tongue.  Fig.  193.  It  is  used  thus: 
the  two  equal  numbers  set  one  above  the  other  rep- 
resent the  sides  of  a  square,  and  the  single  number 
to  their  right,  represents  in  inches  and  decimals,  the 
diagonal  of  that  square.  E.  g.,  |^  76.37  means  that 
a  square  the  sides  of  w^hich  are  54"  would  have  a 
diagonal  of  70. 3T". 

For  determining  the  length  of  the  long  side  (hy- 
pothenuse)  of  a  right  angle  triangle,  when  the  other 
two  given  sides  are  not  equal,  the  foot  rule,  or  an- 
other steel  square  mav  be  laid  diagonally  across  the 


108 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


blade  and  arm,  and  applied 
directly  to  tlie  proper  grad- 
uations thereon,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  them  meas- 
ured on  the  rule.  If  the  dis- 
tance to  be  measured  is  in 
feet,  use  the  1/12"  gradua- 
tions   on    the    back    of    the 


Fig-.  194.      Face  of  Steel 

Square,  Octag-on,  "Eig-ht- 

Square,"  Scale. 


square. 

To  use  the  octagonal  (or 
8-square)  scale,  Fig.  194,  which  is  along  the  c 'liter 
of  tlie  face  of  the  tongue,  with  the  dividers,  take  the 
nuiulier  of  spaces  in  the  scale  to  correspond  with  the 
number  of  inches  the  piece  of  wood  is  square,  and 
lay  this  distance  off  from  the  center  point,  on  each 
edge  of  the  board.  Connect  the  points  thus  obtained, 
diagonally  across  the  corners,  and  a  nearly  exact  oc- 
tagon will  he  had.  E.  g.,  on  a  lioard  12"  square. 
Fig.    1  !>.-).   find    A.F).('.r)..   the  centers   of   each   edge. 

Xow  with  the 
dividers  take  12 
spaces  from  the 
S-square  scale. 
Lay  otf  this  dis- 
tance on  each 
side  as  A'  A" 
from  A,  B'  B" 
from  B,  etc. 
Xow  connect  A" 
with  B',  B"  with 
(".  (•"  with  D', 
D"  with  A',  and 
the  octagon  is 
obtained. 

In   making  a 
S(]uare    ])iece    of 
timber  octagonal,   the   same  method   is   used   on    the 
butt,  sawed  true.     When  the  distance  from  one  cen- 
ter is  laid   olT.  the  marking-gage  may  be  set  to  the 


Fig.  1"5.    Method  of  Using  the  Eight- 
Square  Scale  on  the  Steel-Square. 


—       <o     -  ~     -^; 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


109 


Fig-.  1%.     Back  of  Steel 

Square,     Essex     Board 

Measure. 


distance  from  the  point 
thus  obtained  to  the  corner 
of  the  timber,  and  t]ie  jjiece 
gaged  from  all  four  cor- 
corners  both  ways.  Cut- 
ting off  the  outside  arrises 
to  the  gaged  lines  leaves  an 
octagonal   stick. 

The  board-measure  is  stamped  on  the  back 
of  the  blade  of  the  square,  Fig.  190.  The  fig- 
ure 13  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade  is  the 
starting  point  for  all  calculations.  It  repre- 
sents a  1"  board,  13"  wide,  and  tbe  snuiller  fig- 
ures undei'  it  indicate  the  length  of  boards  in 
feet.  Thus  a  board  13"  wide,  and  8'  long  meas- 
ures 8  square  feet  and  so  on  down  the  column. 
To  use  it,  for  boards  other  than  13"  wide: — 
find  the  length  of  the  board  in  feet,  under  the 
13"  marked  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade,  then 
run  right  or  left  along  that  line  to  the  width  of 
the  board  in  inches.  The  number  under  the 
width  in  inches  on  the  line  showing  the  length 
in  feet,  gives  the  board  feet  for  lumber  1"  thick. 

For  example,  to  measure  a  board  1-1'  long, 
and  11"  wide, — under  the  figure  13,  find  1-1 
(length  of  the  board)  ;  to  the  left  of  this,  under 
11  is  the  number  13.10;  13'  lo"  is  the  board- 
measure  of  the  board  in  question.  Since  a  board 
13'  long  would  have  as  many  board  feet  in  it  as 
it  is  inches  wide,  the  B.M.  is  omitted  for  13' 
boards.  Likewise  a  board  6'  long  would  have  ^ 
the  number  of  board  feet  that  it  is  inches  wide. 
If  the  board  is  shorter  than  the  lowest  figure 
given  (8)  it  can  be  found  by  dividing  its  double 
by  3. ;  e.  g.,  to  measure  a  board  5'  long  and  9" 
wide,  take  10  under  the  13,  run  to  the  left  of 
the  number  under  9,  which  is  7'  6";  ^  of  this 
would  be  3'  9",  the  nuud)er  of  board  feet  in  the 
board. 


>-  ---to    — 


110 


IIANDWOKK    IN    WOOD. 


If  the  board  to  bu  meas- 
ured is  longer  than  any  fig- 
ure given,  divide  the  length 
into  two  parts  and  add  the 
result  of  the  two  ^larts  ob- 
taiiKMJ  se})arately.  For  ex- 
aiHi)le.  for  a  l)oard  'i-\'  long 
and   lo"  wide. — take  I'^'xlo" 


Fig-.  197. 

Steel  Square  with 

Rafter  Table. 


to      it.       ]l'xi:r'  =  n'      11' 


total. 


=13:     add 
24'  11". 

A  good  general  rule  is  to  think  fii'st  whether 
or  not  the  problem  can  be  done  in  one's  head 
without  the  assistance  of  the  square. 

The  table  is  made,  as  its  name,  Board-Meas- 
ure (B.M.)  implies,  for  measuring  boards,  which 
are  coin  moldy  1"  thick.  For  material  more  than 
1"  thick.  iiiiilti})ly  the  B.^F  of  one  surface  by 
tlic  miiiibcr  of  inches  thick  the  piece  measures. 

The  rafter-table  is  found  on  the  back  of 
the  body  of  the  square.  Fig.  1!»7.  Auxiliary 
to  it  are  the  twelfth  inch  graduations,  on  the 
outside  edges,  which  may  represent  either  feet 
or  inches. 

By  the  "■'run"  of  the  rafter  is  meant  the  hor- 
izontal distance  Avhen  it  is  set  in  place  from  the 


Fig.  Ifi8.     The  "Run"  and  "Rise" 
of  a  Rafter. 


end  of  its  foot  to  a  i)lumb  line  from  the  ridge 
end,  i.  e.,  one  half  the  width  of  the  building, 
Fio;.  198.  Bv  the  ''rise''  of  the  rafter  is  meant 
the  porpendicidar  distance  from  the  ridge  end 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


Ill 


to  the  level  of  the  foot  of  the  rafter.  By  the  jiitch  is  meant  the 
ratio  of  the  rise  to  twice  the  run,  i.  e.,  to  the  total  width  of  the 
building.  In  a  ^  pitch,  the  rise  equals  the  run,  or  ^  the  width  of 
the  building:    in  a  1/3    pitch    the    rise    is    1/3    the    width    of    the 


,1:0. 


l,]?l,r.l.i?l,i,l,ii'l.i.l.ia.i.l.iPl 


4-4 

-18               " 

3-9 

■16 

.1-4 

14 

2-9 

■IZ               . 

Fig-.  199.     Lumberman's  Board  Rule. 

building;   in  a  ^  pitch  the  rise  is  ^  the  width  of  the  building. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  rafter  by  the  use  of  the  table,  first  find 
the  required  pitch,  at  the  left  end  of  the  table.  Opposite  this  and 
under  the  graduation  on  the  edge  representing  the  run  in  feet,  will 
be  found  the  length  of  the  rafter;  e.  g.,  a  rafter  having  a  run  of  13' 
with  a  J4  pitch,  is  13'  5"  long,  one  with  a  run  of  11'  and  a  1/3  pitch, 
is  13'  3x^3-",  one  with  a  run  of  7'  and  a  f  pitch,  is  11'  2^^" 
long,  etc. 

When  the  run  is  in  inches,  the  readings  are  for  1/13  of  the  run 
in  feet;  e.  g.,  a  rafter  with  a  run  of  13"  and  a  ^  intch  is  ISy^g-", 
one  with  a  run  of  11"  and  a  1/3  pitch,  is  13x^2-".      "Where   the    run 


Fig-.  200.    Try-Square.  Fig.  201.    Miter-Square.  Fig-.  202.    Sliding  T  Bevel. 


is  in  both  feet  and  inches,  find  the  feet  and  the  inches  separately; 
and  add  together;  e.  g..  a  rafter  Avith  a  run  of  11'  6",  and  a  ^ 
pitch,  is  15'  6yV"  +  8y'^"=l(r  3yv". 

The  lumhcrman's  'board-rule.  Fig.  199.     To  measure  wood  by  it, 
note  the  length  of  the  board  in  feet  at  the  end  of  the  measure.     The 


112 


HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


^ 


\ 


^M^L^ 


Fig-.  203.     Using-  the  Try-Square. 


lot  nearest  the  widtli   (measined  in  inches)   gives  the  B.M.  for  lum- 
)er   1"  thick. 

The  fn/-s(ju(irc.  V\u:.  •?()().  whicli  is  most  commonly  used  for  nieas- 

uiing    the    accuracy    of    right 
angles,   is   al^o  convenient  for 

»  testing  the   width   of   a   Ijoard 

at  various  places  along  its 
length,  tor  making  short  meas- 
urements, and  as  a  guide  in 
laying  out  lines  with  a  pencil 
or  knife  at  right  angles  to  a 
sill  fat-e  or  etlge.  The  sizes  are 
\ai'ious  and  are  indicated  l)y 
tlie  length  of  the  hlade.  A 
■oii\ fiiicnt  size  for  the  indi- 
-  idiial  hench  and  lov  ordinary 
use  has  a  hlade  (>"  long.  It 
is  also  well  to  have  in  the  shop 
one  large  one  with  a  12"  hlade. 
In  testing  the  sipiareness  of  woi'k  with  the  try-square,  care  must 

be  taken  to  see  that  the  head   rests  firmly  against   the  suiface  fiom 

which  the  test  is  made,  and  llini  slijjjM'd   down  till   tlie  hlade  touches 

the     edge    being    tested. 

Fig.      203.        The      edge 

shiudd     be     teste(l     at     a 

liuiidtei'   of    ])|aees    in    the 

same    way:     that    is,    it 

should  not  be  slid  along 

the  piece.  The  try-square 

is   also   of   great    use   in 

scril)ing       lines       across 

hoards.      Fig.     204.        A 

good    method     is    to    put 

the  point  of  the  knife  at 

the  beginning  of  the  de- 
sired      line.      slide      the 

square     along     until     it 

touches  the  knife-blade:    then,  holding  the  head  of  the  square  firmly 

against   tli«'   vi\:j:i\   draw    the   knife   along,    pressing    it   lightly   againsr 


^^"■..^(14.     ScriliinLT  with   Kiiifc 
by  Try-Scjuare. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


113 


the  blade,  holding  it  ijerpendicularly.  To  prevent  the  knife  from 
1  iinning  aAvay  from  the  bhide  of  the  try-square,  turn  its  edge  slightly 
towards  the  blade. 

The  miter-square.  Fig.  ^01,  is  a  try-square  fixed  at  an  angle  of  45". 

The  sliding  T  level.  Fig. 
203,  has  a  blade  adjustable  to 
any  angle.  It  may  be  set 
either  from  a  sample  line, 
drawn  on  the  wood,  from  a 
given  line  on  a  protractor, 
from  drawing  triangles,  from 
the  graduations  on  a  framing 
square,  or  in  other  ways.  It 
is    used    similarlv    to    the    T- 


Fig-.  205.     Windiiig--Sticks,  12  inches  Long-. 


square. 

Winding-sticl-s,  Fig.  205,  consist  of  a  pair  of  straight  strips  of 
exactly  the  same  width  thruout.  They  are  used  to  find  out  whether 
there  is  any  twist  or  "wind"  in  a  Ijoard.  This  is  done  by  placing 
them  parallel  to  each  other,  one  at  one  end  of  the  board,  and  the  other 
at  the  other  end.  By  sighting  across  them,  one  can  readily  see 
whether  the  board  be  twisted  or  not.  Fig.  206.  The  blades  of  two 
framing-squares  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner. 

Compasses  or  diviilcrs.   Fig.  20;,  consist  of  two  legs  turning  on  a 
joint,  and  having  sharpened  points.     A  convenient  f(n'm  is  the  wing 
divider  which  can   be  accurate'y  adjusted   by   set-screws.     A   pencil 
can     be     substi- 
tuted for  the  re- 
movable      point. 
They    are     used 
for        describing 
circles  and  arcs, 
for   spacing,   for 
measuring,      for 
subdividing    dis- 
tances,   and    for 

scribing.  In  scribing  a  line  parallel  with  a  given  outline,  one  leg 
follows  the  given  edge,  or  outline,  and  the  point  of  the  other,  marks 
the  desired  line.  Used  in  this  way  they  are  very  convenient  for  mark- 
ing out  chamfers,  especially  on  curved  edges,  a  sharp  pencil  being 
substituted  for  the  steel  point. 


Fig.  201).     Method  of  Usintr  the  Windiiifr-Sticks. 


114 


HANDWOKK   IN   WOOD. 


The  beam-compass.  Fig.  308,  consists  of  two  trammel-points  run- 
ning on  a  beam  which  may  be  made  of  any  convenient  length.  It  is 
used  for  describing  large  circles.  A  pencil  may  be  attached  to  one 
point. 

Calipers,  outside  and  inside,  Figs.  209,  210,  are  necessary  for  the 
accurate  gaging  of  diameters,  as  in  Avood-turning. 


iat=^ 


Fig-.  207.     Winytd  Dividers.        Fig-.  208.     Beani-Compass  or  Trammel  Points. 
Fi«-.209.     Outside  Calipers.  Fi<r.  210.     Inside  Calipers. 


The  marhing-gage.  Fig.  211,  consists  of  a  head  or  block  sliding 
on  a  beam  or  bar,  to  which  it  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  set-screw.  On 
the  face  of  the  head  is  a  brass  shoe  to  keep  the  face  from  wearing. 
Projecting  thru  the  beam  is  a  steel  spur  or  point,  which  should  be 
filed  to  a  flat,  sharp  edge,  a  little  rounded  and  sharpened  on  the 
edge  toward  which  the  gage  is  to  be  moved.  Fig.  212.  It  should  pro- 
ject about  y^"  from  the  beam.  If  the  spur  be  at  all  out  of  place,  as 
it  is  likely  to  be,  the  graduations  on  a  beam  will  be  unreliable.  Hence 
it  is  best  to  neglect  them  entirely  when  setting  the  gage  and  always 
to  measure  with  the  rule  from  the  head  to  the  spur.  Fig.  213. 

In  use  the  beam  should  be  tilted  forward,  so  as  to  slide  on  its 

corner,  Fig.  214.  In  this  way 
r 


0 

.1.1.1,1,1,1,1.  ll 

I 

1/ 

FifT.  211.     MarkinfT-tiag-e 


Fi},f.  212.     Spur  of  Markinj>--Gage. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


115 


the  depth  of  the  gage  line  can  be  regulated.  Ordinarily,  the  finer 
the  line  the  better.  The  head  must  ahvays  be  kept  firmly  pressed 
against  the  edge  of  the  wood  so  that  the  spur  will  not  run  or  jump 


Fig-.  213.     Settino-  a  MaiKiiii;-! 


away  from  its  desired  course.  Care  should  also  be  taken,  except  in 
rough  pieces,  to  run  gage  lines  no  farther  than  is  necessary  for  the 
sake  of  the  appearance  of  the  finished  work.  To  secure  accuracy,  all 
gaging  on  the  surface  of  wood,  shouVl  be  done  from  the  "working 
face"  or  "workins;  eda-e."' 


It  is  sometimes  advisable,  as 
their  edges  with  a  marking- 
gage,  because  the  marks  will 
show  after  the  chamfer  is 
planed  off.  A  pencil  mark 
should  be  made  instead.  For 
this  purpose  a  pencil-gage  may 
be  made  by  removing  the  spur 
of  a  marking-gage,  and  boring 
in  its  place  a  hole  to  receive  a 
pencil  stub  with  a  blunt  point, 
or  a  small  notch  may  be  cut 
in  the  back  end  of  the  beam, 
in  Avhich  a  pencil  point  is  held 
while  the  gage  is  worked  as 
usual  except  that  its  position 
is  reversed.  For  work  requir- 
ing  less    care,    the    pencil    may 


in  hiving  out  chamfers,  not  to  mark 


Fig-.  214.     Using  the  Marking-Gage. 


U(. 


HANDWORK    IX    AVOOD. 


Fiy.  215.     Marking'-Gag'e  fur  Curve;^ 


be  held  in  the  manner  usual  in 
writing,  the  middle  finger  serv- 
ing as  a  guide,  or  a  pair  of 
pencil  compasses  may  be  used, 
one  leg  serving  as  a  guide.  A 
special  gage  is  made  for  gag- 
ing curved  lines.  Fig.  215. 

The  cutting-gage,  Fig.  "216,  is  similar  to  a  marking-gage,  except 
that  it  has  a  knife-point  insi-rted  instead  of  a  spur.  It  is  very  useful 
in  cutting  up  soft,  thin  wood  even  as  tliick  as  '4". 

The  s/itfiiig-gagc  is  used  in  a  sim- 
ilar way,  but  is  hirger  and  has  a  handle. 
The  iiiortisc-gfigi'.  Fig.  217,  is  a 
iiiarkiiig-gage  with  two  s|nirs.  with 
wliich  two  pai'allel  lines  can  lie  drawn 
at  once,  as  in  laying  out  moitises.  One 
form  is  made  entirely  of  steel  having, 
instead  of  spurs,  discs  with  sharp- 
ened  edges. 

The  xrnitch-iiirl .  Fig.  218.  lias  a 
long,  slender  point  wliieli  is  useful  not  <tidy  Un-  marking  Hues,  but 
for  centering. 

The  (iiigcr-tiit-giif/r.  Fig. 
21!>.  is  a  convenient  tool  tor 
measuring  the  depth  of  holes 
boied.  but  foi'  oi'diuary  ]uir- 
poses  a  block  of  wood  sawn 
to  the  i»ro])er  length  thru 
which  a  bole  is  bored,  is  a 
satisfactoiy  substitute. 

Scrcir-  find  ii-irc-gagcs,  Fig.  220.  are  usefid  in  measuring  the 
lengths  and  sizes  of  screws  and  wire  wlien  lifting  or  ordering. 

The  spirit-level,  and  the  /iliinih-liin'  which  it  has  largely  replaced, 
are  in  constant  use  in  carpeiiti'iing.  but  are  rarely  needed  in  shopwork. 


Cuttiii<jr-(iaLre. 


Fiir.  217.     Knller  M(lI•li^e-GaKt 


=^^ 


Fife'.  21X.    Scratcli-Awl. 


Fig.  219.     Aujfer-Bit-Gag-e 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS. 


117 


Blacl'board  coiitixisse-s.  triangles,  etc.,  are  convenient  accessories 
in  a  woodworking  classroom. 

8.    SlfAKPENING  TOOLS. 

The  griuclsfoiie  for  woodworking  tools  is  best  when  rather  fine 
and  soft.  The  grinding  surface  should  be  straight  and  never  concave. 
The  stone  should  run  as  true  as  possible.     It  can  be  made  true  by 


a.  Screw-Gag-e. 


Fitr.  220.     Screw-  and  Wire-Gages. 

b.  Wire-Gag-e.  c  Twist  Drill-Gag-c. 


using  a  piece  of  1"  gas  pipe  as  a  truing  tool  held  against  the  stone 
when  run  dry.  Power  grindstones  usually  have  truing  devices  attached 
to  them.  Fig.  221.  A  common  form  is  a  hardened  steel  screw,  the 
thread  of  which,  in  working  across  the  face  of  the  grindstone,  as  they 
both  revolve,  shears  off  the  face  of  the  stone.  The  suiface  should 
always  be  wet  when  in  use  l)otli  to  carry  oft'  the  paiticles  of  stone 
and  steel,  and  thus  preserve  the  cutting  quality  of  the  stone,  and  to 
keep  the  tool  cool,  as  otherwise,  its  temper  would  be  drawn,  which 
would  show  by  its  turning  blue.  But  a  grindstone  should  never 
stand  in  water  or  it  would  rot. 


118 


HANDWORK    IX    WUOU. 


It  is  well  to  have  the  waste  from  the  grindstone  empty  into  a 
cisternlike  hox  under  it,  Fig.  221.  In  this  box  the  sediment  will 
settle  while  the  water  overliows  from  it  into  the  drain.  Without 
snch  a  box,  the  sediment  will  be  carried  into  and  may  clog  the  drain. 
The  box  is  to  be  em^jtied  occasionally,  before  the  sediment  overflows. 


i 

liL^  221.     Power  Grindstone. 


In  order  tliat  the  tool  iiia\  he  ground  aecurately,  there  ai'e  vari- 
ous devices  for  holding  it  tirmly  and  steadily  against  the  stone.  A 
good  one  is  shown  in  Figs.  221  and  222.  This  device  is  constructed 
as  follows:  A  board  A  is  made  2"  thick,  6"  wide,  and  long  enough 
when  in  ])osition  to  reach  from  the  floor  to  a  point  above  tlie  level 
of  tlu'  top  ot  tlie  stone.  It  is  beveled  at  the  lower  end  so  as  to  jest 
snugly  against  a  t'h'at  nailed  down  at  the  proper  place  on  tlie  floor. 
T\\Q  hoard  is  held  in  jilace  by  a  loop  of  iron.  B,  which  hooks  into 
the  holes  in  the  trough  of  the  grindstone.  In  the  hoard  a  series  of 
holes  (say  l"  in  diameter)  are  bored.  These  run  ])arallel  to  the 
floor  Avhen   the  board   is  in   ])lace,  and   receive  the  end   of  the  tool- 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


119 


holder.  The  tool-hokler  consists  of  four  parts:  (1)  a  strip  C,  1^^" 
thick,  and  as  wide  as  the  widest  plane-bit  to  be  ground.  The  for- 
ward end  is  beveled  on  one  side;  the  back  end  is  rounded  to  fit  the 
holes  in  the  main  board  A.    Its  length  is  determined  by  the  distance 


Fig.  222.     Grinding  Device. 

from  the  edge  of  the  tool  being  ground  to  the  most  convenient  hole 
in  A,  into  which  the  rear  end  is  to  be  inserted.  It  is  better  to  use 
as  high  a  hole  as  convenient,  so  that  as  the  grindstone  wears  down. 


Fig.  223.     Holder  for  Grinding-  Cnisels  or  Plane-Bits 


the  stick  will  still  be  serviceable;  (8)  a  strip,  D,  of  the  same  width 
as  A  and  %"  thick,  and  15"  to  18"  long;  (3)  a  cleat,  E,  ^"x^", 
nailed  across  D;  (4)  a  rectangular  loop  of  wrought  iron  or  brass,  F,. 


120 


llAXD\VUi;K    IN     WOOD. 


wiiR'li  })asses  Hroiuid  tlie  farther  end  of  tlie  two  striptr,  C  and  D,  aiid 
is  fastened  loosely  to  D  by  staples  or  screws. 

The  tool  to  be  ground  slips  lietwi'L'n  this  loop  and  the  strip  C,  and 
is  held  firndy  in  place  by  the  pressure  applied  to  the  bad-;  end  of  D, 
which  thus  acts  as  a  lever  on  the  fulcrum  K. 

Anv  desired  l)e\cl  iiuiy  \)v  ohtainiMl  on  the  tool  to  ])e  sliai'peneiK 
bv  cboosing  tlie  pi-o[)er  hole  in  A  for  llic  l>;ick  end  of  ('  or  by  ad- 
just iiig  the  tool  L'oiward  or  backward  in  tlie  chunp.  As  much  pres- 
suu'  mav  be  |)ut  on  the  tool  as  the  driving  belt  will  stand  without 
sli})i)ing  off. 

A  still  simjtler  bolder  for  the  })liUic-l)it  only,  is  a  stiip  of  wood 
1^"  tliick  and  "2"  wide,  cut  in  the  sliape  (i  shown  in  Fig. '^'^o.  The 
l)lanc-bit  fits  into  the  saw-kerf  K.  and  in  gi'inding  is  easily  held 
firndy  in  })lace  l)y  the  hand.  By  inserting  the  rear  end  of  the  stick 
(t  into  a  higher  or  lower  hole  in  the  hoaid  A.  any  desired  angle  may 
be  obtained.     G  is  shown  in  ])osition   in    Kig.  "i'M. 

All  such  devices  necessitate  a  ))eifeetly  true  stone.  The  essential 
features  are.  to  have  a  rigid  support  against  wbieh  the  tool  may  be 
pushed  hv  tlie  revohing  stone,  to  liold  the  tool  at  a  tixt'd  ang'e  which 
mav  be  adjusted,  and  to  press  the  tool  against  the  stoiu'  with  etui- 
siderable  pressure.     The  wheel  should   levolve  toward  the  edge  which 

is  heiiig  ground,  for  two  rea- 
sons. It  is  easier  to  bold  the 
tool  steadily  thus,  and  the 
danger  of  |)roducing  a  wire 
edge  is  lessened.  The  edge  as 
it  becomes  thin,  tends  to 
^|)ring  away  from  the  stone 
and  this  tendeney  is  aggra- 
\iite(l  if  the  stone  revolves 
awa\'  from  the  t'dge.  If  the 
stone  does  not  run  true  and 
there  is  a  e(»nse(|uent  danger 
of  digging  into  the  stone  with 
the  tool  wbieh  is  lieing  sharpened,  the  stone  would  h-tter  levolve 
awav  from  the  alj^r.  The  grinding  should  eontiniie  until  the  ground 
suiface  reaches  the  cutting  edge  and  there  is  no  briglit  line  left  along 
the  edge.  If  the  gi'inding  is  continued  beyond  this  ]>oint.  nothing  is 
gained,  and  a  hea\v  wire  edge  will  be  lormed. 


Fig-.  224.     Atracite  (■.rintler. 


WOOD    HAXD   TOOLS.  121 

A  very  convenient  and  inexpensive  grinding  tool,  Fig.  224,  sold 
as  the  "AgacUe  grinder,' '  has  a  number  of  different  shaped  g-rinding 
stones  made  chiefly  of  carborundum. 

The  oilstone.  After  grinding,  edge  tools  need  whetting.  This  is 
done  on  the  whetstone,  or  oilstone.  The  best  natural  stones  are  found 
near  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  Tlie  fine  white  ones  are  called  Arkan- 
sas stones,  and  the  coarser  ones  Washita  stones.  Tlie  latter  are  better 
for  ordinary  woodworking  tools.  The  India  oilstone,  an  artificial 
stone,  Fig.  77,  p.  58,  cuts  even  more  quickly  than  the  natural  stones. 
It  is  made  in  several  grades  of  coarseness.  The 
medium  grade  is  reconunended  for  ordinary  shop 
use.  Oil  is  used  on  oilstones  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  water  on  a  grindstone.     When  an  oil- 


stone becomes  hollow  or  uneven  by  iise,  it  may         ^'^-  ^■^^-  siipstone. 

be  trued  by  rubbing  it  on  a  Hat  board  covered 

with  sharp  sand,  or  on  sandpaper  tacked  over  a  l)\x'k  of  wood. 

Slipstones,  Fig.  225,  are  small  oi'stones,  made  into  various  shapes 
in  order  to  fit  different  tools,  as  gouges,  the  bits  of  molding-planes,  etc 

Files  are  used  for  sharpening  saws,  augers,  scrapers,  etc.  See 
above,  p.  00. 

9.    CLEANINC4    TOOLS. 

The  hcncJi  duster.  One  may  be  noted  hanging  on  the  bench  shown 
in  Fig.  1()6,  p.  98.  Bristle  brushes  for  cleaning  the  benches  are 
essential  if  the  shop  is  to  be  kept  tidy. 

Buffer.  Wherever  a  lathe  or  other  convenient  revolving  shaft  is 
available,  a  buffer  made  of  many  thicknesses  of  cotton  cloth  is  very 
valuable  for  ^Dolishing  tools.  The  addition  of  a  little  tripoli  greatly 
facilitates  the  cleanina;. 


■'Made  by  the  Empire  Implement  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y 


122 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


AVOOD  HAND  TOOLS. — Continued. 


References:* 


(4)    Scraping  Tools. 

Barnard,   pp.    136-142. 
Wheeler,  pp.  465,  473. 


Griftitli,  pp.  71-75. 
Selden,  pp.   149,  177,   182. 
Hodgson,   I,  pp.   61-74. 


(5)    Pounding   Tools. 

Barnard,    pp.    24-47. 

Sickels,    p.    70. 

Wheeler,   ]ip.    414,  428-432. 


Selden.   pp.   31,    111,   156. 
C^oss,  p.  60. 
Barter,    p.    128. 


(6)    Punching    Tools. 
Barnard,    p.    29. 
Wheeler,    p.    433. 


Selden.  p.   161. 


(7)    Gripping  Tools. 
For   holding   work: 

Goss.   p.   63. 

Wlieeler,  pp.  65-75,  475. 
For  holding  other  tools: 

Goss.   pp.   56-59. 


Sehh'U.  pp.   140,   147,   186,   194. 
Ihiiiiniaclier,    ]ip.    286-291. 

Selden.   p.    143. 


BiiihUiiri  Troflcs  Pocketbook.  pp.  234- 


(8)    Measuring  and  Marking  Tools. 
Goss,   pp.   9-20. 
Griffith,  jip.   9-19. 
Hodgson,  The  Steel  8(iyare.         Selden,  pp.   149.   150-152,  175. 
Wheeler,   p.    465.  Sargent's  Steel  Squares. 

Tate,    pp.    21-25. 


[9)    Sharpening  Tools. 

Barnard,    pp.    136-142. 
Sickels,   pp.   80-85. 
Wheeh'r,   pp.    480-488. 


Selden,   pp.    153,    162,    172.   180. 
Goss,   pp.    39.    64-69. 


^■'For  general   hihliograpliy   see  p.  4. 


Chapter  V. 


WOOD  FASTEXIJvTGS. 


9 


The  following  are  the  chief  means  by  which  pieces  of  wood  are 
fastened  together:  nails,  screws,  bolts,  plates,  dowels,  glue,  hinges, 
and  locks. 

NAILS 

Nails,  Fig.  226,  may  be  classified  according  to  the  material  of 

which  they  are  made;    as,  steel,  iron,  copper,  and  brass.     Iron  nails 

may  be  galvanized  to  protect  them  from  rust.     Copper  and  brass  nails 

are  used  where  they  are  sul)ject  to  much  danger 

of  corrosion,  as  in  boats. 

Nails  may  also  be  classified  according  to  the 

process  of  manufacture ;    as,  cut  nails,  wrought 

nails,  and  wire  nails.     Cut  nails  are  cut  from  a 

plate  of  metal  in  such  a  way  that  the  width  of 

the  nail  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  plate, 

and  the  length  of  the  nail  to  the  width  of  the 

plate.      In    the    third    dimension,    the    nail    is 

wedge-shaped,   thin   at   the   point   and   thick   at 

the   head.      Unless   properly   driven,   such   nails 

ai'e   likely   to    split   the   wood,   but   if   properly 

driven    they    are    very    firm.     In    driving,    the 

wedge   should   spread   with   and   not   across   the 

giain. 

Wrought  nails  are  worked  into  shape  from  hot  steel,  and   have 

little  or  no  temper,  so  that  they  can  be  bent  over  without  breaking, 

as  when  clinched.     Horseshoe-  and  trunk-nails  are  of  this  sort.   They 

are  of  the  same  shape  as  cut  nails. 

Wire  nails  are  made  from  drawn  steel  wire,  and  are  pointed, 
headed,  and  roughened  by  machinery.  They  are  comparatively  cheap, 
hold  nearly  if  not  quite  as  well  as  cut  nails,  which  they  have  largely 
displaced,  can  be  bent  without  breaking,  and  can  be  clinched. 


Fig-.  220.  a.  Cut  nail, 
cominon.  b.  Flat-head 
wire  nail,  No.  1,  com- 
mon, c.  Finishing-nail, 
or  brad. 


123 


124 


JlAXUWOIiK    IX    WOOD. 


Nails  ajo  also  classitic'd  aci-ordiiio-  to  thr  sliajic  of  their  heads; 
as,  common  oi'  ilat-lieads,  and  hrads  or  finishing  nails.  Flat-heads 
are  used  in  ordinary  work,  wheie  the  lieads  are  not  to  he  siud\  in 
the  wood  or  "set." 

Koine  nails  get  their  names  fiom  their  s])i'eial  uses;  as,  shingle- 
nails,  trunk-nails.  l:)oat-nails.  lath-nails.  ]»i(tnic-nails.  harrel-nails,  etc. 
The  size  of  nails  is  indicated  hy  the  length  in  inches,  and  l)y  the 
size  of  the  wire  for  wire  nails,  'i'he  old  iioiuencdatuie  for  cut  nails 
also  survives,  in  which  certain  numhi'is  arc  picfixed  to  "penny."'  For 
example,  a  thiee])enny  nail  is  1'4"  long,  a  fourpenny  nail  is  1^" 
long,  a  tivejienny  nail  is  l-)4"  long,  a  sixpenny  nai  is  2"  long.  In 
othei'  words,  from  thiecpennv  to  t<'n])('iniy  '4"  is  ailded  f(U-  each 
penny,  Init  a  twelveiH'nny  nail  is  -5 '4"  long,  a  sixteenpcnny  nail  i;- 
'i/'i"  long,  a  t\venty|)enny  nail  is  4"  long.  This  is  explained  as  mean- 
ing that  "tenjienny"  nails,  for  example,  i-ost  ten})ence  a  hundred. 
Anothei'  explanation  is  that  (U'igina  ly  looo  of  such  nails  weighed 
a  pound.  'File  size  of  cut  nails  is  usually  still  so  indicated.  Xails 
are  sold  l)y  the  pound. 

The  advantages  of  nails  are  that  they  are  quickly  and  easily  ap- 
plied, they  are  strong  and  chea]).  and  the  work  can  he  separated,  the 
with  difficulty.  The  disadvantages  are  the  a])pearancc  and,  in  some 
cases,  the  insecurity. 

The  holding  power   of  nails   nuiy   he   inci'cased   hy   driving  them 

into  the  wood  at  other  than  a   right  angle.  es])ecially  where  several 

nails  unite  two  i)ieces  of  wood.     By  driving  some  at 

oiH'   inclination   and   sonu'  at   another,   they   hind   the 

])ieccs  of  wood  together  with   much  gi  eater  f(U'ce  than 

*pp  when  dri\cn  in  straiglit. 

'  The    term    hrads    was    once   confined    to   small    fin- 

ishing nails,  l)ut  is  now  used  for  all  finishing  nails, 
in  di-tiiu-tion  from  comnion  or  llat-headed  nails.  The 
lieads  aie  made  round  iiisl(ad  of  flat  so  that  they  may 
he  si't  easily  with  a  nailset  and  the  ho'e  filled  with 
a  plug,  or,  where  the  wood  is  to  he  painted,  with 
l)utty.     They  aic  used   for  intei'ior  finishing  and  othei'  nice  work. 

Tdcl's,  j-'ig.  •.'•??,  vary  in  size  and  shaiie  at-cording  to  their  use; 
as.  flat-hea(le(|.  gimp.  iouiid-hea(le(l.  and  douhle-jiointcMl  ov  nuitting 
tacks,  a  soi'l  of  small  staple.  Their  size  is  imlicaied  hy  the  word 
"ouiu-e."      Foi'  example,  a   t\vo-(miiee  tack    is    '4"  long,  a   three-ounce 


Yig.  227.  Tack. 


AVOOD    FASTENINGS. 


125 


Figr.  228.     Corrugated 
Fastener. 


tack  is  ^"  long,  a  four-ounce  tack  is  7/16"  long,  a  six-ounce  tack  is 
Yz"  long,  etc.  This  term  once  meant  the  numher  of  ounces  of  iron 
required  to  make  1000  tacks. 

Tacks  are  useful  only  in  fastening  to  wood  thin  material,  such  as 
veneers,  textiles,  leather,  matting,  tin,  etc.     Tinner's  tacks,  which  are 
used  for  clinching,   are  commonly  called  clinch-nails.     Wire  tacks, 
altho  made,  are  not  so  successful  as  cut  tacks 
because  they  lack  a  sharp  point,  which  is  es- 
sential. 

Corrugated  fasteners,  Fig.  328,  or  fluted 
nails,  are  used  to  fasten  together  tAvo  pieces 
of  wood  by  driving  the  fastener  so  that  one- 
half  of  it  will  be  on  each  side  of  the  joint. 
Their  size  is  indicated  by  the  length  and  the 
number  of  corrugations,  as  Yz" ,  four.  They 
are  often  useful  Avhere  nails  are  impracticable. 

Glaziers'  points  are  small,  triangular  pieces  of  zinc,  used  to  fasten 
glass  into  sashes. 

SCREAVS 

(a)  Wood-screws,  Fig.  229,  may  be  classified  by  the  material  of 
Avhich  they  are  made;  as,  steel  or  brass.  Steel  screws  may  be  either 
bright, — the  common  finish, — blued  by  heat  or  acid  to  hinder  rust- 
ing, tinned,  or  bronzed.  Brass  scrcAvs  are  essential  wherever  rust 
Avould  be  detrimental,  as  in  boats. 

(b)  ScieAvs  are  also  classified  by  shape;  as,  flat-headed,  round- 
headed,  fillister-headed,  oval-countersunk-headed,  and  square-headed 
screAvs.  Flat-heads  are  most  commonly  used.  There  are  also  special 
shapes  for  particular  purposes.  Eound-heads  may  be  used  either  for 
decoration  or  where  great  clraAving  power  is  desirable.  In  the  latter 
case,  Avashers  are  commonly  inserted  under  the  heads  to  prevent  them 
from  sinking  into  the  Avood.  Oval-heads  are  used  decoratively,  the 
head  filling  the  countersunk  hole,  as  Avith  flat-heads,  and  projecting 
a  trifle  besides.  They  are  much  used  in  the  interior  finish  of  raiJAvay 
cars.     They  are  suitable  for  the  strap  hinges  of  a  chest. 

The  thread  of  the  scrcAV  begins  in  a  fine  point  so  that  it  may 
penetrate  the  wood  easily  Avhere  no  hole  has  been  bored  as  is  often 
the  case  in  soft  wood.  The  thread  extends  about  two-thirds  the 
length    of   the   screAv.      Anv   longer   thread   Avould   onlv   Aveaken   the 


126 


IIANDAVORK    IX    WOOD. 


screw  where  it  most  needs  strength,  near  the  head,  and  it  does  not 
need  friction  with  the  piece  thru  which  it  passes. 

Tlie  size  of  screws  is  indicated  by  their  length  in  inches,  and  by 
the  diameter  of  the  wire  lidin  wliicli  tliey  are  made,  using  the  stand- 
ard screw-gage.  Fig.  '-^■-^<i.  p.  IIT.  They  vary  in  size  from  Xo.  0 
(less  than  1/16")  to  Xo.  oO  (more  than  T/Ki")  in  diameter,  and  in 
length  from  Y\"  to  G". 

The  following  is  a  good 
general  rule  for  the  use  of 
screws:  make  the  hole  in  the 
piece  tliru  which  the  screw 
passes,  large  enough  for  the 
screw  to  slip  thru  easily. 
Countei-sink  this  hole  enough 
to  allow  tlie  head  to  sink  iiush 
with  tbe  surface.  Make  the 
bole  in  the  piece  into  which 
the  screw  goes  small  enough 
for  tbe  thread  of  the  screw  to 
catch  tight.  Then  all  tbe 
strength  exerted  in  driving, 
goes  toward  drawing  tbe  pieces 
together,  not  in  overcoming 
frietion.  The  hole  must  be  deep  enough,  especially  in  bard  wood  and 
for  l)rass  screws,  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  twisting  off  and  breaking 
the  screw.  Soap  is  often  useful  as  a  lubricant  to  facilitate  the  driving 
of  screws.  Where  it  is  desiral)le  tbat  tbe  beads  do  not  show,  a  hole 
may  iirst  be  bored  with  an  auger-bit  large  t'uougb  to  receive  the  head 
and  dee])  enough  to  insert  a  ]ihig  of  wood,  wbicb  is  cut  out  witb  a 
plug-cutter.  Fig.  lot.  ]).  S4.  and  glued  in  place.  If  pains  are  taken 
to  iiiatcb  tbe  grain,  tlu'  scar  tbus  I'onued  is  inconsi)icuous. 

In  rough  woik.  tbe  screw  may  be  driven  into  ])lace  witb  a  ham- 
nu'i'  tbi'u  luost  of  its  length,  and  then  a  few  tinal  turns  be  given 
witb  a  sci-ew(lri\('r.  but  tbis  brinks  tlu'  tibeis  of  tlu'  wood  and  weaken^ 
tbeir  bobl.  \\\  '-(Irive-sci cws."  Fig.  'l'l\\  c  tlu:  slot  is  not  cut  a'l  tbe 
wav  across  tbe  bead,  in  older  tbat  tbe  blows  of  tbe  baiunu'i'  may  not 
close   tbe  slot. 

Tbe  ad\■antage^  of  screws  are.  tbat  tbey  are  very  strong  and  tbat 
tbe    woi'k    can    easily    be    taken    apai't.      If    tbey   loosen    tbey    can    be 


Fifr.      22^>.  a.      Flat-head      Wood-screw, 

b.  Round-head    Wood-screw.      c.    FiUister- 
head    Wood-screw.       d.    Oval-couiitersunk- 
head  Wood-screw,  e.  Drive-screw,  f.  Square- 
head (lag-or  coach-)  Screw. 


WOOD    FASTE^riXGS. 


127 


retighteiied.  The  disadvantages  are,  that  they  are  expensive,  that 
they  take  time  to  insert,  that  they  show  very  phiinly.  and  that  tliey 
do  not  hold  well  in  end  grain. 


Fig-.    230.       a.    Stove- 
bolt,  b.  Carriagre-bolt. 
c.    Machine-bolt. 


BOLTS 

Bolts  with  nuts  are  useful  where  great  strength  is  desired.  There 
are  three  chief  varieties,  Fig.  230. 

Stove-holts  are  cheaply  made  (cast)  bolts 
having  either  flat  or  round  heads  with  a.  slot  for 
the  screwdriver,  like  ordinary  screws. 

Carriage-holts  are  distinguished  by  having 
the  part  of  the  shank  which  is  near  the  head, 
square. 

Machine-holts  have  square,  hexagonal,  or 
button  heads. 

Macliine-scrctts,  Fig.  231,  are  similar  to 
stove-bolts,  but  are  accurately  cut  and  are  meas- 
ured with  a  screw-gage.  The  varieties  are,  a, 
flat-head,  h.  round-head,  c,  fillister-head,  d,  oval- 
countersunk-head,  all  with  slots  for  screwdriver. 
Plates^  Fig.  332,  include  corner-irons,  straight 
plates  and  panel-irons.  These  are  made  of 
either  iron  or  brass  and  are  used  in  fastening  legs  to  the  floor,  in 
stiffening  joints,  affixing  tops,  etc. 

Doirel-rods.  Dowel-rods  are  cylindrical  rods,  from  3/16"  to  1" 
in  diameter,  and  3(i",  4"3",  and  48"  long.  They  are  commonly  made 
of  birch  or  maiflc,  but  ma])le  is  more  satisfactory  as  it  shrinks  less 
and  is  stronger  than  biich. 

Dowels  are  used  as  pins  for  joining  boards  edge  to  edge,  and  as 

a    substitute    for    mortise-and- 
tenon  joints. 

There  is,  to  be  sure,  a  prej- 
udice against  dowels  on  the 
part  of  cabinet-makers  due, 
jns^ibly,  to  the  willingness  to 
have  it  appear  that  doweling 
is  a  device  of  inferior  me- 
chanics. But  doweling  is 
cheaper  and  quicker  than  ten- 


Fig-.   231.       Machine-scre-ws.     a.  Flat-head. 

b.  Round-head.     c.  Fillister-head.     d.  Oval- 

couutersunk-head. 


128 


HAXDWOKK    IX    WOOD. 


oning,  and  there  arc  many  places  in  wood  construction  where  it  is 

jnst  as  satisfactory  and,  if  properly  done,  just  as  strong.     Certain 

parts  of  even  the  best  furniture  are  so  put  together. 

Shoe  pegs  serve  well  as  small  dowels.     They  are  dipped  in  glue 

and  driven  into  brad-aAvl  holes. 

Wedges  a  r  e 
commonly  used  in 
door  construction 
between  the  edges 
of  tenons  and  the 
insides  of  mor- 
tises Avhich  are 
slightly  beveled, 
No.  34,  Fig.  366, 
p.  179.  Or  the 
end  of  a  tenon 
may  be  split  to  re- 
M36.     The  Mind  wedge  is  used  in  the 


Straight  plate,     c.    Panel-iron 


ceive  the  wedges,  Xo.  o.").    Fig. 
fox-tail  joint,  Xo.  ?,(l  Fig.  266. 


GLUE 

nine  is  an  infci'ior  kind  of  gelatin,  and  is  of  two  kinds, — animal 
glue  and  fisli  glue.  Animal  glue  is  made  of  l)ones  and  trimmings, 
cuttings  and  licsliings  from  hides  and  skins  of  animals.  Sinews, 
feet,  tails,  snouts,  ears,  and  horn  pith  are  also  largely  used.  Cattle, 
calves,  goats,  pigs,  hoi>('s,  and  rabbits,  all  yield  characteristic  glues. 

The  best  glue  is  made  from  hides  of  oxen,  which  are  soaked  in 
lime  water  until  fatty  oi'  ])a]-tly  decayed  matter  is  eaten  out  and  only 
the  glue  is  left.     The  i)i'odiict  i<  ch-aned,  boiled  down  and  dried. 

The  best  and  clearest  h(me  glues  are  obtained  liy  leaching  the 
hones  with  dilute  acid  which  ilissolves  out  the  lime  salts  and  leaves 
the  gelatinous  matters.  Such  leached  bone  is  sold  as  a  glue  stock, 
under  the  name  of  "'osseine.'"  This  material  together  with  hides, 
sinews,  etc.,  has  the  gelatin  or  g'ue  extracted  i)y  i)oiling  again  and 
again,  just  as  soup  stock  might  be  boiled  si'veral  times.  Fach  extrac- 
tion is  called  a  "run."  Sometimes  as  many  as  ten  or  tiftccn  runs 
ai-e  taken  from  llie  same  kettle  of  stock,  and  each  may  be  finished 
alone  or  mixed  with  other  runs  from  other  stock,  resulting  in  a 
a'rcat   variety  of  commercial  glues. 


WOOD    FASTENINGS.  129 

Manufacturers  use  many  tests  for  giue^  such  as  the  viscosity  or 
running  test,  the  odor,  the  presence  of  grease  or  of  foam,  rate  of 
set,  the  melting-point,  keeping  properties,  jelly  strength  (tested  be- 
tween the  finger  tips),  water  absorption  (some  glues  absorb  only 
once  their  weight,  others  ten  or  twelve  times),  and  binding  or  ad- 
hesive tests.  This  latter  varies  so  much  with  different  materials  that 
what  may  be  good  glue  for  one  inaterial  is  poor  for  another. 

Putting  all  these  things  together,  glues  are  classified  from  grade 
10  to  160,  10  being  the  poorest.  The  higher  standards  from  60  and 
upwards  are  neutral  hide  glues,  clear,  clean,  free  from  odor,  foam,  and 
grease.  The  lower  standards  are  chiefly  Ijone  glues,  used  for  sizing 
straw  hats,  etc.  They  are  rigid  as  compared  with  the  flexibility  of 
hide  glues.  For  wood  joints  the  grade  should  be  TO  or  over.  For 
leather,  nothing  less  than  loo  should  be  used,  and  special  cements 
are  better  still. 

The  best  glue  is  transparL'ut.  hard  in  the  cake,  free  from  spots, 
of  an  amber  color,  and  has  little  or  no  smell.  A  good  practical  test 
for  glue  is  to  soak  it  in  water  till  it  swells  and  becomes  jelly-like. 
The  more  it  swells  without  dissolving  the  better  the  quality.  Poor 
glue  dissolves.  Glue  is  sometimes  bleached,  becoming  brownish  white 
in  color,  but  it  is  somewhat  weakened  thereby. 

Fish  glue  is  made  from  the  scales  and  muscular  tissue  of  flsh. 
Isinglass  is  a  sort  of  glue  made  from  the  viscera  and  air  bladder  of 
certain  flsh,  as  cod  and  sturgeon. 

Liquid  glue  may  be  made  either  from  animal  or  fish  glue.  The 
LePage  liquid  glue  is  made  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  one  of  the  greatest 
fish  markets  in  the  country.  Liquid  glue  is  very  convenient  because 
alwavs  ready,  but  is  not  so  strong  as  hot  glue,  and  has  an  offensive 
odor.  Liquid  glues  are  also  made  by  rendering  ordinary  glue  non- 
ge'atinizing,  which  can  be  done  by  several  means :  as,  for  instance, 
by  the  addition  of  oxalic,  nitric,  or  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  glue  so- 
lution. 

To  prepare  hot  glue,  break  it  into  small  pieces,  soak  it  in  enough 
cold  water  to  cover  it  well,  until  it  is  soft,  say  twelve  hours,  and 
heat  in  a  glne-pot  or  double  boiler.  Fig.  243,  p.  148.  The  fresher 
the  glue  is,  the  better,  as  too  many  heatings  weaken  it.  When  used 
it  should  be  thin  enough  to  drip  from  the  brush  in  a  thin  stream, 
so  that  it  will  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  so  get  a  grip.  Two  sur- 
faces to  be  glued  together  should  be  as  close  as  possible,  not  separated 


130  IIANUWOKK    IN     WOOD. 

by  a  mass  of  glue.  It  is  esseutial  that  the  glue  be  hot  and  the  wood 
warm,  so  that  the  glue  may  remain  as  liquid  as  possible  until  the 
surfaces  are  forced  together.  Glue  holds  best  on  side  grain.  End 
grain  can  be  made  to  stick  only  by  sizing  with  thin  glue  to  stop  the 
pores.  Pieces  thus  sized  and  dried  can  be  glued  in  the  ordinary 
way.  but  such  joints  are  seldom  good.  Surfaces  of  hard  wood  that 
are  to  be  glued  should  iirst  be  scratched  with  a  scratch-plane.  Fig. 
Ill,  p.  :9. 

To  make  waterproof  glue,  add  one  part  of  potassium  bichromate 
to  fifty  i3arts  of  glue.  It  will  harden  when  exposed  to  the  air  and 
light  and  be  an  insoluble  liquid.* 

General  directions  for  gluing^  Before  applying  glue  to  the  parts 
to  be  fastened  together,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  assemble  them  tempo- 
rarily without  glue,  to  see  that  all  the  parts  fit.  When  it  is 
desirable  that  a  certain  part,  as  the  panel,  in  panel  construction, 
should  not  1)0  glued  in  place,  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  apply  wax, 
soap,  or  oil  to  its  edges  before  insertion.  Since  hot  glue  sets  quickly^ 
it  is  necessary  after  the  glue  is  applied  to  get  the  parts  together  as 
soon  as  possible.  One  must  learn  to  work  fast  but  to  keep  cool.  To 
expedite  matters,  everything  should  be  quite  ready  before  the  ])i'ocess 
is  begun,  clam^Ds,  protecting  blocks  of  wood,  paper  to  protect  the 
blocks  from  sticking  to  the  wood,  braces  to  straighten  angles,  mallet, 
try-square,  and  all  other  appliances  likely  to  be  required. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  to  break  up  the  process  into  steps,  each 
step  can  be  taken  Avith  more  deliberation.  For  example,  in  assem- 
bling framed  pieces  that  are  doweled,  it  is  well  to  glue  the  dowels 
into  one  set  of  holes  beforehand,  making  tenons  of  them,  as  it  were. 
Time  is  thus  saved  for  the  final  assend)ling  when  haste  is  imperative. 
The  superfluous  glue  around  the  dowe's  should  be  carefully  Aviped  off. 

Likewise  in  gluing  wj)  framed  pieces,  sections  may  be  put  together 
separately:  as,  the  ends  of  a  tabh',  and  Avhen  they  are  dry  then  the 
whole  may  be  assembled.  When  the  pieces  are  together  the  joints 
should  be  tested  to  see  that  they  are  true,  and  that  there  are  no 
tAvists. 

A  good  Avay  to  insure  squareness,  is  to  insert  a  diagonal  brace  on 
the  inside,  corner  to  corner,  as  in  Fig.  294,  p.  195.     Such  a  brace 


■For  reci|i('s  for  tliis  ;uul  other  yhies,  s^ee  Woodcraft,  May  "07,  p.  49. 
"For  s]iccial  diicctiniis.  for  jKirticular  joints,  seo  under  the  A'arious  joints, 
;Chap.    \'ir.) 


WOOD    FASTENINGS. 


131 


should  be  provided  when  tlie  tiial  assembly  is  made.  Another  good 
way  to  insure  squareness  is  to  pass  a  rope  around  two  diagonally  op- 
posite posts,  and  then  by  twisting  the  rope,  to  draw  these  corners 
toward  each  other  until  the  frame  is  square. 

The  superfluous  glue  may  be  wiped  off  at  once  with  a  warm  damp 
cloth,  but  not  with  enough  water  to  wet  the  wood.  Or  by  waiting  a 
few  minutes  until  the  glue  thickens,  much  of  it  can  readily  be  peeled 
olf  with  an  edge  tool.  Either  of  these  ways  makes  the  cleaning  easier 
than  to  let  the  superfluous  glue  harden. 

The  work  when  glued  should  remain  at  least  six  hours  in  the 
clamps  to  harden. 

HINGES 

Hinges,  Fig.  233,  are  made  in  several  forms.  The  most  common 
are  the  butt-hinge  or  butt,  the  two  leaves  of  which  are  rectangular,  as 
in  a  door-hinge;  the  strap-hinge,  the  leaves  of  wliich  are  long  and 
strap-shaped  ;  the  Tee-hinge,  one  leaf  of  whicli  is  a  Initt,  and  the 
other  strap-shaped;  the  chest-hinge,  one  leaf  of  which  is  bent  at  a 
right  angle,  used  for  chest  covers;  the  table-hinge  used  for  folding 
table  tops  with  a  rule  joint;  the  piano-hinge,  as  long  as  the  joint; 
the  blank  hinge  or  screen-hinge  which  oj^ens  both  ways ;  the  stop- 
hinge,  which  opens  only  90° ;  and  the  "hook-and-eye''  or  "gate" 
hinge. 


Fig-.  233.      a.  Butt-hinge,      b.  Tee-hing-e.     c     Chest-liiiige.      d.  Table-hinge,     e.  Blank 

or  Screen-hinge. 

The  knuckle  of  the  hinge  is  the  cylindrical  part  that  connects  the 
two  leaves.  Fig.  234.  The  "acorn"  is  the  head  of  the  "pintle"'  or 
pin  that  passes  thru  the  knuckle.  Sizes  of  butts  are  indicated  in 
inches  for  length,  and  as  "narrow;"  "middle,"  "broad"  and  "desk" 
for  width.  The  pin  may  be  either  riveted  into  the  knuckle  as  in 
box-hinges  or  removable  as  in  door-butts.     Sometimes,  as  in  blind- 


132 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


hinges,  the  pintle  is  fastened  into  one  knuekle,  but  turns  freely  in 

the  other. 

A  butt-hinge  may  be  set  in  one  of  three  iwsitions,  Fig.  235:   (1) 

Where  it  is  desired  to  have  the  hinge  open  as  wide  as  possible,  as  in  a 

door.     Here  the  knuekle  is  set  well  out  from  the  wood.      (2)  Where 

it  is  desired  to  have  the  hinged  portion 
open  flat  and  no  more.  Here  the  cen- 
ter of  the  |)in  is  in  line  with  the  out- 
side surface  of  the  wood.  This  is  less 
likely  to  rack  the  hinge  than  the  other 
two  positions.  (3)  Where  it  is  desired 
to  have  the  knuckle  project  as  little  as 
possible. 

HINGING 


/ 

1 

}d 

/ 

® 

® 

fc-3 

@ 

-^ 

d 

© 

'b 

— 1 

Fig.   234.     Partsof  a  butthinge. 

1.1.     Leaves.        2.2.2.      Knuckle. 

3.  Pintle.     4.  Acorn 


In  setting  the  hinges  of  a  l)Ox  cover, 
first  see  that  the  cover  fits  the  box  ex- 
actly all  the  way  around. 

Hi  the  case  of  a  door,  see  that  it  fits 
its  frame,  evenly  all  the  way  around. 
To  insure  a  tighter  fit  at  the  swino-ing  edge 


but  with  a  little  })lay 

this  edge  should  be  slightly  beveled  inwards. 

In  attaching  a  butt-hinge,  the  essential  thing  is  to  sink  the  hinge 
into  the  wood,  exactly  the  thickness  of  the  knuckle.  The  gains  may 
be  cut  in  one  or  both  of  the  pieces  to  be  hinged  together. 

With  these  matters  determined  pi'oceed  as  follows :  In  the  case 
of  a  box  cover,  the  hinges  should  be  set  about  as  far  from  the  ends 
of  the  box  as  the  hinge  is  long. 

In  the  case  of  an  upright  door,  locate  the  hinges  respectively 
above  and  below  the  lower  and  upper  rails  of  the  door.  Mark  with 
the  knife  on  the  edge  of  the  door  the  length  of  the  hinge,  and  square 
across  a]ipr(iximat('ly  the  width  of  the  gain  to  receive  it.  T)o  this  for 
both  hinges.  IJetwccn  these  lines  gage  the  proper  width  of  the  gains. 
Set  another  gage  to  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  knuckle  and  gage 
on  the  door  face  the  depth  of  the  gains.  Chisel  out  the  gains,  set 
the  hinges  in  place.  Iiore  the  lioU's.  and  drive  the  screws.  Place  the 
door  in  position  again  to  test  the  lit.  If  all  is  well,  mark  the  ])Osition 
of  the  hinges  on  the  fiaine,  gage  and  cut  the  gains,  and  fasten  in  the 
hinu'es.     Where  the  hinu'c   is  o-ained   its  full   thickness  into  the  door. 


WOOD   FASTENINGS. 


133 


no  gain,  of  course^  is  cut  in  the  frame.      If  the  hinges  are  set  too 
shallow,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  unscrew  one  leaf  of  each  and  cut  a 
little  dee]3er.     If  they  are  set  too  deep  the  screws  may  be  loosened 
and  a  piece  of  paper  or  a  shav- 
ing  inserted   underneath    along 
the  outer  arris  of  the  gain. 

LOCKS 

The  chief  parts  of  a  lock 
are:  the  IjoJi.  its  essential  fea- 
ture, the  selvage,  the  plate 
which  appears  at  the  edge  of 
the  door  or  drawer,  the  hox, 
which  contains  the  mechanism- 
including  the  tumbler,  tvard. 
spring,  etc.,  the  key-pin,  into 
or  around  Avhich  the  key  is  in- 
serted, the  strike,  the  plate  at- 
tached opposite  the  selvage, 
(often  left  out  as  in  drawer- 
locks,  but  essential  in  hoolv-bolt 
locks,  and  self-locking  locks,) 
and  the  escutcheon,  the  plate 
around  the  keyhole. 

Locks  may  be  classified:  (1)  According  to  their  uses,  of  which 
there  are  two  types,  (a),  Fig.  236,  For  drawers,  cupboards,  tills, 
wardrobes,  and  doors.  In  these  the  bolt  simply  projects  at  right 
angles  to  the  selvage  into  the  strike,  and  resists  pressure  sidewise  of 
the  lock,     (b).  Fig.  237,  For  desks,  roll-top  desks,  chests,  boxes  and 

sliding  doors.  In  these,  the  bolt  in- 
cludes a  hook  device  of  some  kind  to 
resist  pressure  perpendicular  to  the 
selvage.  In  some  locks,  the  hook  or 
hooks  project  sidewise  from  the  bolt,  in 
others  the  bolt  engages  in  hooks  or 
eyes  attached  to  the  strike. 
TT V,  oi^    Tj-     I    1    ^^    T^  (3)  According  to  the  method  of  ap- 

Fig.  236.     Rim-lock.  for  Drawer.  ^     '  o  i       r 

1.  Bolt.     2.  seivagre.     3.  Bo.x.        plicatiou.  as  rim  locks,  which  are  fas- 

4.  Key-pin.  ^  ' 


Pig.  235.     Three  Positions  of  Hing-es. 


134 


HAXDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


lened  on  the  surface,  and  iiiurtise  locks  which  are  mortised  into  the 
edge  of  a  door  or  drawer  or  ])ox. 


INSERTIXG    LOCKS 

-To  insert  a  riiu-Iocl'.  measure  the  distance  from  the  selvage  to  the 
kev-pin.  locate  this  as  the  center  of  the  keyhole,  and  l)ore  the  hole.     If 

the  lofk  has  a  selvage,  gain  ont  the  edge 
of  tlic  door  oi'  drawer  to  I'eceive  it.  If 
the  lock  hox  has  to  he  gained  in,  do 
tliat  next,  taking  care  that  the  bolt  has 
room  to  slide.  Cut  the  keyhole  to  the 
|)ro|)ei'  shape  with  a  keyhole-saw  or 
small  ehisel.  Fasten  the  lock  in  place, 
and  if  there  is  a  strike  or  face-plate, 
mark   its  place  and  mortise  it  in. 

'i'o  insert  a   inortisc-lock,  locate  and 
bore    tlie    keyhole,    mortise    in    the    box 
and  the  selvage,  iinish  the  keyhole,  fasten  in  the  lock,  add  the  es- 
cutcheon, locate  and  mortise  in  the  strike,  and  screw  it  in  place. 


Morlise-lock,  for  Box. 


WOOD   FASTENINGS.  135 


WOOD    FASTENINGS 
References : 

Hammaeher  &   Schleniiiier. 
Catalog  No.   151. 

Nails. 
Goss,  p.  153.  Griffith,  pp.  75-78. 

Purfield.   Wood   Craft,   5:  181.  Wood  Craft,  5:    103. 

Park,  pp.   129-135.  Wheeler,  pp  428-433. 

Tacks. 

Wheeler,  pp.  429-433.  Goss,  p.  155. 

Sickels,  p.   70.  Barter,   pp.  84-86. 

Screws. 

Goss,  p.  155.  Griffith,  pp.  78-80. 

Wheeler,  p.  476.  Park,  pp.   136-140. 

Barter,  p.  86. 

Dowels. 
Goss,  p.  153.  Sickels.  p.   104. 

Wheeler,  p.   374.  Griffith,  p.  02. 

Wedges. 

Goss,  p.  151. 

Glue. 

Goss,  p.  156.  Sickels.  p.  106. 

Rivington,   III,  p.  432.  Wheeler,  pp.   391-396. 

Barter,  p.   82.  Alexander,   Wood  Craft,  5:    168. 

Standage,  Wood  Craft,  7:  48.  Griffith,  pp.  80-83. 

Park,  jjp.   141-146. 

Hinges. 

Sickels,  p.   118.  Wheeler,  p.   402. 

For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


Chapter  VI. 
EQUIPMENT  AND  CAEE  OF  THE  SHOP. 

Tool  equipment.  The  choice  of  tools  in  any  particuhir  shop  best 
comes  out  of  long  experience.  Some  teachers  prefer  to  emphasize 
certain  processes  or  methods,  others  lay  stress  on  different  ones.  The 
following  tentative  list  is  suggested  for  a  full  equipment  for  twenty- 
four  students.     One  bench  and  its  tools  may  be  added  for  the  teacher. 

The  prices  given  are  quoted  from  Discount  Sheet  No.  1  for  Cata- 
logue of  Tools,  No.  355  issued  by  Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co., 
Fourth  Avenue  and  13th  Street,  New  York  City,  dated  1908,  and 
are  correct  at  the  present  date  (1910).  Aggregate  orders,  however, 
are  always  subject  to  special  concessions,  and  it  is  suggested  that  be- 
fore ordering  the  purchaser  submit  a  list  of  specifications  for  whicli 
special  figures  will  be  quoted. 

There  are  good  benches,  vises,  and  tools  of  other  makes  on  the 
market,  but  those  specified  below  are  typical  good  ones. 

Following  are  two  equipments  for  classes  of  twenty-four  pupils, 
one  severely  economical  to  cost  approximately  $400,  and  the  other 
more  elaborate  to  cost  approximately  $750. 

$400   TOOL   EQUIPMENT. 
INDIVIDUAL     TOOLS. 

24  Manual  Training,'  School  Benches  H.  &  8.  -L,"  fa    $8.50 $204.00 

24  Stanley  Jack-rianes.  No.  5.   14",  @  $1.74  each 41.76 

24  Disston's  Back-Saws.  No.  4,   10",  @   9.3e  each 22.32 

12  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  No.  2,  %",  handled  and  sharpened.  2.21 

12  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  No.  2,  1/2",  handled  and  sharpened.  2.68 

24  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  No.  2.  1".  handled  and  sharpened..  7.31 

24  Sloyd  Knives,  No.  7,  21/2"    6.50 

12  Hammond's  Adze-eye   Claw-Hanuner.   No.    3,   7   oz 4.90 

24  Try-squares,    No.    5%,    <>" 5.32 

24  Beech  Marking-Gages.  No.   04^2 4.86 

136 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF   THE   SHOP.  137 

24  Boxwood  Rules,  No.   3,   12"  long $  1.80 

12  Faber's  Measuring  Compass,  No.   1752 1.50 

12  Bench-Hooks 2.00 

12  Bench-Dusters,  No.   10    2.70 

Total   for   individual   tools $309.86 

GENERAL  TOOLS 

6  Disston's   Crosscut-Saws,  No.   7,  22",   10  points $     6.75 

6  Disston's  Rip-Saws,  No.  7,  22",  8  points 6.75 

2  Turning-Saws  in  frames,   14",  M.   F.  &  Co 1.74 

1   Dozen  Turning-Saw  Blades,   14",   H.   S.  &  Co 1.06 

1  Hack-Saw    Frame,    ISIo.    50 45 

1  Disston's   Dovetail-Saw,   6",   iron   back .48 

1  Stanley   Miter-Box,    No.    240 8.20 

2  Stanley   Block-Planes,   No.    651/2 1.56 

1  Stanley    Fore-Plane,    No.    6 2.22 

1  Stanley  Rabbet-Plane  and   Filletster,   No.   78 1.10 

1   Stanley   "Bed   Rock"   Plane,    No.    603 1.58 

6  Iron   Spokeshaves,    No.    54 1.42 

1  Veneer-Scraper,  No.   80    .70 

6  Each  Molding-Scrapers,   No.   2  and   No.   7 .90 

1  Scraper   Steel,    Richardson's,    .10 

3  Flat  Bastard  Files,   K.   &   F.,  8",   handled 45 

3  Half-Round  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled 55 

3  Rat-tail  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled 33 

4  Files,  K.  &  F.,   6",   slim  taper .36 

1  Auger-Bit-File    13 

1  File-Card,  No.   1 .14 

1   Empire   Tool-CTrinder    2.80 

1  Grindstone,   No.    11,   with   stone    15.00 

1  India   Oilstone,  No.  0,  in  box    .95 

1   Soft  Arkansas   Oil   Slipstone,   No.   6 18 

1  Copperized   Steel  Oiler,  No.   14A,    %   pint 23 

•  2  Disston's   Sliding  T  Bevel,   No.   3,   6" 46 

1   Stanley  Miter-Square,   No.    16,    10" 60 

1   Sargent  Steel  Square,   No.  2 69 

1  Pair  Starrett's  Winged  Dividers,  No.   92,  8" 75 

1  Chisel,  No.   2,   %",  handled    20 

3  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Gouges,   No.  8,   1" 1.29 

1  Buck  Brothers'  Gouge,  No.  10,  inside  bevel,  regular  sweep,   %".  .  .  .43 

4  Barber's   Braces,  No.    14,   6"   sweep 3.52 

1  Barber's  Ratchet-Brace,  No.  31,   12"   sweep 1.62 

5  Gimlet-Bits,  1  each  of  2/32",  3/32",  4/32",  5/32",  6/32" 40 

1   Set   Auger-Bits,   R.   Jennings"    4.46 

1   Clark's    Expansive-Bit,    small     .57 


138  HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 

2  Screwdriver-Bits,   V/',  round  blade.  No.    10.  4" $0.32 

3  Rose   Countersinks,   No.    10.    ^" .68 

6  Brad- Awls,  assorted  l"-liL'"    30 

1  Hand-Drill,   No.    51/2    2.45 

Extra  Drills,  2  each  of  No.   107.  size.  10,  1.-),  20,  25,  30,  35,  40,  45, 

50,    55,    (iO     1.42 

C  New  Century  Screwdrivers,  4" .96 

1   New  Century  Screwdriver,   12"    .54 

6  0.   K.   Nailsets,   assorted    .42 

6  Carpenter's   Steel   Bar   Clamps,    3   ft 9.60 

12  Aldrich's  Oiled   Handscrews,  No.   16,   10" 4.79 

12  Aldrich's  Oiled  Handscrews,  No.   171/2,  6" 3.42 

4  Carriage-Maker's    Clamps,    6"     1.32 

1  Automatic   Miter-Clamp    1-80 

1  Pair   Pliers,   No.   200,    5" 21 

1   Coe's    Monkey- Wrench,    10"    60 

1  Glue-Pot,   No.    3    82 

1  Parker's   Wood-working  Vise,   No.   276 8.07 

1  Gas    Stove,    99A    55 

1   Pair  End-Cutting  Nippers,   No.   154,  5" .88 

1  Glass-Cutter,   No.    10    27 

3  Flat     Varnish      Brushes.    No.    54,     \V2".    hard-rul)l)or-l)nund     ( fin- 
shellac)      96 

6  Cheap   Brushes.    1",  tin-l)ound    (for   stains).   "EE" ,90 

6  Extra   Jack-Plane  Cutters    ( No.   5 1     1.80 

6  Enamel    Cups,    i{.    pint    -60 

1  Maple   Yard-Stick,   No.    41    17 


Total   for   general   tools    $114.97 

Total    for    individual    tools    309.86 


$424.83 
Discount   for   schools,    10  per   cent 42.48 


$382.35 
Lockers   for   individual   work    $150.00 

$750    TOOL    EQUIPMENT 

TXCLUDIXG  1   BENCH  AND  SET  OF  TOOLS  FOR  INSTRUCTOR 
AND  INDIVIDUAL  TOOLS 

25  Manual   Training  School    Benches.  Hamniacher,   Schlemnier  &   Co.'s 

'M"  with  Toles'    (luick-aitiiig   Vise   im   side,    (a    $20 $.i()0.00 

25  Stanley  Jack-Planes,  No.  5,  14",  @  $1.74  each 43.50 

25  Disston's  Back-Saws,  No.  4,  10",  (a  93c  each 23.25 


EQUIPMENT    AND    CARE    OF   THE    SHOP.  139 

25   Buck    Brothers'    Firmer-Chisels,    %,",    liaiulled    and    sharpened,    @ 

$•2.21     doz $  4.61 

25  Buciv    Brothers"    Firnier-t'hisels,    i/^".    handled    and    sharpened.    @ 

$2.68   doz 5.58 

25  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  1".  handled  and  sharpened,  @  $.3.65.  7.61 

30  Sloyd  Knives.  No.  7,  21/2"  blade   (6  extra)   @  $3.25  doz 8.12 

25  Hammond's  Adze-eye  Hammers,  No.  3,   7  oz.,  @  $4.90  doz 10.21 

25  Round  Hickory  Mallets.  No.  4,  @  $1.40  doz 2.91 

25  Hardened  Blade  Try-Squares,  No.  51/2,  6",  @  $2.66  doz 5.57 

25  Beech  Marking-Gages,  No.  64i/o,  8",  @  $2.43  doz 5.07 

25  Steel  Bench-Rules,  No.  300D,  @  $4.80  doz 10.00 

36  Faber's  Measuring  Compass,  No.   1752    (12  extra) 4.50 

25  Maple  Bench-Hooks,  @  $2.00   doz 4.18 

25  Bench-Dusters.  No.   10,  @  $2.70  doz 5.63 

Total    for    individual    tools $640.74 

GENERAL  TOOLS 

6  Disston's  Crosscut-Saws,  No.   7.  22",   10   points $  6.75 

6  Disston's  Rip-Saws,  No.  7,  22",  8  points 6.75 

4  Turning-Saws   in   frames,    14"    3.48 

1  Doz.   Turning-Saw  Blades,    14"    1.06 

1  Compass-Saw,   Disston's    No.    2,    10" .27 

1   Stanley    Miter-Box,    No.    240 8.20 

1  Disston's   Dovetail-Saw,   6".    iron    back .48 

2  Coping-Saws,    No.    110 40 

1  Gross    Coping-Saw    Blades,    0" 1.00 

6  Stanley  Block-Planes,   No.   65%    4.68 

1   Stanley    Fore-Plane,    No.    6 2.22 

1  Stanley  Rabbet-Plane  and   Filletster,  No.   78 1.10 

2  Stanley's  "Bed  Rock"  Smooth-Planes,  No.   603  or 3.16 , 

Sargent's    i\djustable-Frog    Smooth-Plane     

12  Extra  Jack-Plane  Cutters    (No.   5) ,   2" 3.60 

1   Stanley  Beading  Rabbet  and  Matching  Plane,  No.  45 5.85 

1  Stanley    Router-Plane,    No.    71 ' 1.37 

6  Iron    Spokeshaves,    No.    54    1.42 

6  Pattern-Makers'   Spokeshaves,   applewood,    small.      li/4" 1.52 

2  Drawing-Knives,    ^^'hite's    No.    31,    6" 1.60 

1   Stanley  Adjustable  Scraper-Plane,  No.  112,  with  toothing  cutter..  1.43 

1  Veneer-Scraper,    No.    80    .70 

3  Each  Molding-Scrapers.  No.   2,  No.   7 .45 

2  Dowel-Pointers,    No.    1 00 

1  Dowel-Plate    30 

1   Scraper    Steel,    Richardson's •!*' 

1   Iron    Screw-Box,    French,    ^"    1.80 


1-40  HANDWOliK   IX    WOOD. 

4  Flat  Bastard   Files.  K.  &   F.,   8",  liaiidlcd $0.60 

4  Half-Round   Files.   K.   &    F.,   8".   liaiidled    72 

4  Rat-tail   Files.   K.  &   F.,  8",   handled    44 

4  Files,   G",   slim   tajier    36 

2  Auger-Bit- Files     25 

1  File-Card.    No.    1     14 

1  Empire  Tool-CTrinder    2.80 

1  ({rindstdiie,    No.    11.    (iron    frame    and    stone) 15.00 

2  India    ()i'stones.    No.    2!)    (mediTim),    in    iron    l;ox 1.34 

1  Soft  Arkansas  ( )il    Slipstone,  No.  6 18 

2  Copperized    Steel    Oilei's,    14A,    Vi;    pint .46 

6  Disston's  Sliding  T  Bevels.  No.  3,  (i" 1.38 

1   Stanley  Miter-Sqnare,   No.    10.    10" 60 

1  Sargent    Steel    Sqnare.    No.    2 60 

2  Pairs   Dividers,    Starrett's   winged,    No.    !)2.    8" 1.50 

3  Serateh-Awls.    Collier's,    4"     33 

1   Pair   'rraiiiiiiel-l'oints,   No.    1    .74 

1   Try-S.piare,    \<i.    :^V2.    12".    hardened    hlade    52 

1  Mortise-Gage,    No.    77     .55 

1   Cutting-Gage.    No.    70    17 

3  Eaeh    Firmer-Chisels.    P>uek    Bros."    No.    2,    handled    and    sharpened: 

1/1(1".    1/8".   3/16".   3/8".  3/4".   1  1  /2"    4.42 

3  Eaeh    outside-Bevel    Gouges.    Bu(  k    P>ros."    I'^irmer,    No.    8    handled 

and    sliar])ened:     V^" ,    ^ -j" .    %" .    1" 3.55 

3   Addis'   Carving-Tools,    round   maple   handles.    No.    11,   5/32" 06 

3  Addis"   Veiniug-Tools,   round   maple   handles.   No.    II.    1/16" 06 

3  Inside-Bevel   Gouges,   regular    sweep.    No.    10.    %" 1.29 

6  Barber's    Nickel-Plated    Bi-aces.   No.    14,   6"   sweep 5.25 

1  Barber's    Katehet-P.raee,    No.    31.    12"    sweep 1.62 

3   Eaeh  (Jerman   (Jindet-Bits,  2    32".   3    32".  4/32",  5/32".   6/32" 1.00 

3  Eaeh    Pu^sell    deiuiings"    Auger-Bits,    3/16",    4/16",    5/16".    6/16". 

7    K;",    8    Ki"     .' 4.18 

2  Eaeh     Kussell     .Teiniings"     Auger-Bits,     genuine,      10/16".      11/16", 

12/16",    13/16".    14/16".    15/16",    16/16" 6.19 

1   Eaeh    Foerstner's   Auger-Bits,    %",   ,><^",    Vz" 1.79 

1   Clark's    Expansive-Bit,    Vo"    to    IVs" 57 

3  Buck   Bros.'  Rose  Countersinks.  No.   10,   5,^" 78 

1   Washer-Cutter.    No.    350 65 

1  Plug-Cutter,    y^"     32 

2  Screwdriver-Bits.    Vo".    round   blade,  4"   long 32 

4  Each   Brad-Awls,   liamlled,    1",    \%".    \^-j"    60 

6  New    Century    Screwdrivers,    4" .96 

1    New    Century    Sci-ewdrixcr.    12" .54 

1   Xew   Century    Screwthixcr,    8"     .36 

1    New    Century    Screwdrixcr,    '^Vo".    s'im     .16 

1  Dowel-Plate,    ca-t     vleel     30 


EQUIPMENT    AND    CARE    OF   THE    SHOP.  141 

G  U.  K.   Nailsets,   assoiU'd    1,  IG",   3/32",   1/8"    42 

6  Carpenter   Steel   Bar   Clamps,    3   ft 9. GO 

2  Carpenter   Steel  Bar  Clamps,  5   ft 3. GO 

12  Aldrich's  Oiled  Handscrews,  No.   IG,   10"    4.79 

12  Aldrieh's   Oiled   Handscrews,    No.    17  V-;,    G"    3.42 

4  Carriage -Makers"    Clamps,    (i"    1.32 

1  Automatic    Miter-Clamp     1-80 

2  Doz.   Acme   Pinch-Dogs,    %"    30 

1  Glue-Pot,   No.    3    82 

1  Gas   Stove,   No.   99A    , 55 

1  Coe's   Monkey-wrench,    10"    CO 

1  Glass-Cutter,   No.    10    27 

G  F'at      Varni  h      I'luslus     Xo.     .")4,     IVo".    havd-iul>lici-li()\nid     (for 

shellac)     1-58 

12  Cheap    Brushes,    tin-bound,    (for    stains),    EE,    1"    1.80 

G  Enameled   Cups,    14    pint    .60 

1  Maple  Yard-Stick,   No.   41    -17 

1  Pair   Blackboard   Compasses   or  Dividers    1.50 

1   Blackboard   Triangle,   4.5°    50 

1  Blackboard   Triangle,    30°xG0° 50 


Total   for   general  tools    $189.83 

METAL     WOHKING    T00L8 

1  Bench,  No.   L,   without   vises    •$     8.00 

1  Parker's    Wood-working    Vise,    No.    27() 8.07 

1  Hand- Vise,   No.    1230%,    4"    54 

1  Hay-Budden    Anvil,    10    lbs    3.07 

1  Riveting-Hammer,   Atha,   4   oz .32 

1   Rivet-Set,    No.    4     27 

1   Cold-Chisel,   3/g"   cutting   edge    11 

1  Cold-Chisel,   5/^"   cutting  edge .15 

1   Cape-Chisel,   ^"   cutting  edge    .13 

1  Round-nosed    Chisel,    %"     13 

1  Pair  End-Cutting  Nippers,  No.   154.   5" 88 

1  Pair  Compton's  Metal   Snips,   No.    12,   2" .G3 

2  Pair   Flat-nose   Pliers,   No.    180()yo,    rV 58 

1  Die-Holder,    No.    11     32 

1   Die,    5^"xi4",    6/32" 27 

1  Hand-Drill,   No.    51/2     2.45 

Extra  Drills,  Morse's  No.   107,  2  each,  Nos,  10,    l.i.  20,   2.5,   30,   35. 

40,  4.5,  .50,  55,   GO 1.42 

1   ]\Ietal    Countersink,    No.    15,    5y^"    _, .18 

1   Hack-Saw    Frame,    No.    50    43 

6  Hack-Saw  Blades,  8",  H.   S.  &   Co 25 

1  Melting   Ladle.    3" 19 

1   Soldering   Copper,    1    lb .31 


142 


HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 


1  Mill   Bastard  Fik-.   S",   1    safe  edgi-,   handled.. 

1  Mill   Smooth   File,   G",   handled    

1  Square   Ba.stard   File,   8".   handled    

1  Half-round  Bastard  File,  8",  handled    

1  Slim  Taper  Saw-File,  G",  handled    

1  Hound  Bastard     File.   4",    handled    

1  Atha    Mat'hinisfs    llaiiiincr,    Ball-peen.    (1    oz. 


.8.3 
.38 


Total    for   metal    working  tools    $29.95 

Glue   and    Stain   Bench    $   15.00 

Lockers  for  individual   work  for   3()()   pupils    360.00 

Nail    and    Screw   Cabinet    35.00 


$410.00 

Individual   Tools    $040.74 

General    Tools    189.83 


$830.57 
Discount    for   scliools.    10   per   cent 83.06 


$747.51 
Cabinets,    lockers,    etc 410.00 


$1,157.51 


Till-:  CAi;!-:  of  tiiJ'    woodwoi.-kixc;  shop 


77/ r  gciicfdl  ai-rtnii/cii/rnt  nf  I  he  raoni.  Tin-  iiii])()i'tant  factors 
are  tlie  sourcv  or  soui'fcs  of  liiilit,  and  the  linrs  of  travel.  The  eom- 
inoii  arraugenient  of  heiiehes  wliere  two  sides  of  the  room  are  lighted, 
is  sliown  in  n.  Fig.  •v^'5y.  By  this  arrangement,  as  eaeh  worker  faces 
liis  hench,  Jie  also  faces  one  set  of  windows  and  lias  anotlier  set  of 
windows  at  his  left.  The  advantage  of  tins  arrangement  is  that  it  is 
easy  to  test  one's  work  with  the  try-s(|nai'e  hy  lifting  it  up  to  the 
light.  Another  arrangement,  shown  in  ]>.  Fig.  "^oS.  lias  this  advan- 
tage, that  there  are  no  shadows  on  the  woi'k  wlien  it  is  lying  on  the 
hench  and  tlie  woi'kei'  is  holding  liis  ruU'  or  try-square  on  it  with 
Iris  left  hand.  When  all  the  windows  are  on  one  side  of  the  room 
the   latter   is  the   more   advantageous  ari'angeinent. 

In  detei'iniidng  the  ])Osition  of  the  heiiches,  especially  with  refer- 
ence to  their  distance  I'l-oni  each  other,  thought  should  he  given  to 
the  general  lines  of  traxc!.  ti-oui  the  indixidual  henches  to  the  general 
tool-rack.  1o  the  linishing-tahle.  to  the  lockers,  etc.  Even  if  all  llie 
aisles  cannot  he  w  idi-  enough  hoth  loi'  passage  and  for  woi'k,  one 
wider  one  thru  the  center  of  the  room  mav  solve  the  difficulty.    Where 


EQUIPMENT   AND   CARE   OF  THE   SHOP. 


143 


rooms  are  c-rowded,  space  may  be  economized  b}'  placing  tlie  benches 
in  pairs,  back  to  back,  c  and  d.  Fig.  338.  In  any  case,  room  should 
always  be  reserved  for  a  tier  of  demonstration  seats,  facing  the  teach- 
er's bench,  for  the  sake  of  making  it  easy  for  the  pupils  to  listen  and 
to  think. 

The  Tools.     Every  shop  soon  has  its  own  traditions  as  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  tools,  but  there  are  two  principles  always  worth  observ- 


t==l 

u 

T~l 

'" 

\l 

0—1 

1 

■[; 

1—]      J 

1 

(j— 1      1 

BBS 


C=l  C3  C=l  I 
en  en  C=i  ll 
~i  Pl  C=l 

I 


m  m 
m  m 

n  rn 


Fig.  238.     Four  Different  Arrang-ements  of  Benches  in  a  Shop. 


ing.  (1)  It  is  an  okl  saying  that  there  should  l)e  "a  i)lace  for  every- 
thing and  everything  in  its  place."  This  is  eminently  true  of  a  well- 
ordered  woodworking  shop,  and  there  is  another  principle  just  as  im- 
portant. (2)  Things  of  the  same  sort  should  be  arranged  together,  and 
arranged  by  sizes,  whether  they  be  general  tools  or  individual  tools. 
In  arranging  the  rack  for  general  tools,  a  few  suggestions  are  offered. 
In  the  first  place,  arrange  them  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
cutting  one's  fingers  on  one  tool  when  attempting  to  take  down  an- 


144 


]lAND\V()j;lv    IN     WOOD. 


other.  Where  the  lack  must  iieuds  Ix'  lii.uh,  all  the  tools  ean  be 
brought  within  reacli.  by  phuing  hmg  tools,  like  files,  screwdrivers, 
etc.,  at  the  top.     Siicli  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  239. 

As  to  the  imlividiial  benches,  those  withoiTt  liigh  backs  are  to  be 
piefcrreH.  not  onlv  because  of  theii'  convenience  when   it  is  desired 


Fiff.  230.     General  Tool   rack  in  a  School  Shop. 


to  woi'k  on  large  inect's,  like  tal)le  tops,  and  because  tlie  backs  do  not 
interfere  with  the  light,  but  because  it  is  easier  for  the  teacher  to 
look  ovei'  the  room  to  set'  that  everything  is  in  order.  If  the  e(|uip- 
mi'iit  is  kept  complete,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  glance  over  all  the 
benches  and  tlie  genei-al  rack  to  see  that  evei-ything  is  in  ])lace. 

In  general,  there  are  two  mctliods  of  keeping  guard  over  tools,  the 
open  and  the  closed.  ]n  the  open  method,  everything  is  kept  in  sight 
so  that  em])tv  ]ilaces  can  be  discovered  readily.  This  method  is  a 
convenient  one.  and,  besides,  tlie  tools  are  always  easily  accessible. 
In  the  closed  method,  the  tools  are  kv\)\  in  drawers  and  cases  where 
thev   can   l)e  locked   up.     '^I'his   method    is   suitable   where   pu])ils   are 


EQUIPMENT    AND    CARE    OF   THE    SHOP. 


145 


equipped  with  individual  sets  of  cutting  tools.  In  such  a  ease,  the 
common  tools  for  each  bench  are  kept  in  a  common  drawer  and  in- 
dividual pupils'  tools  in  separate  drawers.  This  method  has  the  dis- 
advantage that  things  are  out  of  sight,  and  if  they  disappear  their 
loss  may  not  be  discovered  immediatelv.     ()n  the  other  hand,  where 


K'» 

4j«A  «aiiii^^H 

"  * 

u- 

^ 

^          4 

4 

K 't     ^    ^^H 

^ 

WP 

L.        _   . 

jiiHil 

-^ 

M 

L 

1£ 

Bi^iki^^B 

^ 

S4 

It--    -rtif 

IP 

1 

M-.J^3^Z 

m 

E±r=    ^ .  i 

'^'^^ 

Ti 

Fig-.  240.     Nail  and  Screw  Cabinet. 


the  drawers  and  cases  aie  kept  carefully  locked,  the  danger  of  loss  is 
reduced  almost  to  a  minimum.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  both 
methods  is  tried,  the  tools  being  kept  m  unlocked  drawers.  This 
method  furnishes  the  greatest  difficulty  in  keeping  tools  from  disap- 
pearing. 

Even  when  tools  are  well  arranged,  one  of  the  most  serious  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  shop  order,  is  to  keep  tools  in  their  places.  Pu- 
pils who  are  in  a  hurry,  slip  in  the  tools  wherever  they  will  fit,  not 
where  they  belong.     Labels  at  the  2:)laces  of  the  different  sets  may 


146 


HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 


help  somewhat ;  a  more  efficient  method  is  to  paste  or  paint  the 
form  of  each  tool  on  the  wall  or  board  against  which  it  hangs.  Pu- 
pils will  see  that,  when  they  will  not  stop  to  read  a  lal)el. 

In  spite  of  all  precautions,  some  tools  will  disappear.     A  plan  to 
cover  the  cost  of  these,  which  works  well  in  some  schools,  is  to  require 


Fig-.  241.     All  Inexpensive  Locker  for  Unfinished  Work. 


a  deposit  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  cover  these  losses.  Then  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  after  deducting  the  cost  of  losses,  the  balance  is 
returned  pro  I'ata. 

There  is  diversity  of  practice  in   the  distrihution  of  tools  on  the 
general  case  and  on  the   individual   benches.     Some  tools,  like   the 


EQUirMENT   AND    CARE    OF   THE    SHOP. 


147 


plane  and  chisel,  and  try-sqnare,  are  so  frequently  in  use  that  each 
worker  must  have  one  at  hand.  As  to  others,  the  demand  must  de- 
termine the  supply.  One  other  consideration  may  be  expressed  by 
the  principle  that  those  tools,  the  use  of  which  is  to  be  encouraged, 
should  be  kept  as  accessible  as  possible,  and  those  whose  use  is  to  be 
discouraged,  should  be  kept  remote.  Some  tools,  like  files,  it  may  be 
well  to  keep  in  a  separate  locker  to  be  had  only  when  asked  for. 


^r-V  \\^6M\^6^]^6'^ 


Si' 
4 


Si." 

4 


CD 


-i 


5'6 


-/& 


Fiy.  242.     A  More  Expensive  Locker  for  Unfinished  Work. 


A  cabinet  of  drawers,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  240,  for  holding 
nails,  screws,  and  other  fastenings,  is  both  a  convenience  and  a  ma- 
terial aid  in  preserving  the  order  of  the  shop. 

As  for  the  care  of  tools  during  vacation,  they  should  be  smeared 
with  vaseline,  which  is  cheap,  and  put  away  out  of  the  dampness. 
The  planes  should  be  taken  apart  and  each  part  smeared.  To  c^ean 
them  again  for  use,  then  becomes  an  easy  matter.  The  best  method 
of  removing  rust  and  tarnish  is  to  polish  the  tools  on  a  power  buffing 
wbeel  on  wliich  has  been  rubbed  some  tiipoli.  They  may  then  be 
polished  on  a  clean  buffer  without  tripoli. 

The  Locl-ers.  In  order  to  maintain  good  order  in  the  shop,  an 
ahuost  in(lis])ensab]e  ]»art  of  the  equipment  is  a  set  of  lockers  for  hold- 


148 


HAXDWOUK    rS'    WOOD. 


ing  the  unfinished  work  of  pupils.  An  inex})ensive  outfit  may  consist 
simply  of  sets  of  shelves,  say  5"  apart,  12"  deep,  and  1  <S"  long.  Fig.  241. 
Ordinary  spring-roller  curtains  may  be  hung  in  front  of  each  set  of 
shelves  to  conceal  and  protect  the  contents.  Such  a  case  should  cost 
at  the  rate  of  about  40c  for  each  compartment.  A  more  substantial 
and  more  con\enient  case,  shown  in  Fig.  242,  consists  of  compart- 


1'\'j:.  243    (lining  and  Staiiiiny  Bench  Covered  with  7,\nc 


ments  each  9^"  high.  0"  wide,  and  18"  decj).  These  proportions 
may  be  changed  to  suit  varying  conditions.  In  front  of  each  tier 
of  12  coiHpartuu'iits  is  a  flap  door  ()|)('ning  downward.  Such  a  case 
built  of  yellow  ]>iii('  (])anclcd)  may  cost  at  the  rate  of  $1.00  per 
compartment. 

There  should,  of  course,  be  a  separate  coiupai'tiiient  foi'  each  ]Mipi! 
using  the  sho|).     Where  possible,  there  should  niso  he  a  special  table 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF   THE   SHOP. 


149 


Fitr.  244.     Sliellac  Utensils. 


for  staining  and  gluing.  Where  strict  econuni\-  must  be  practiced,  a 
good  sized  kitchen  table  covered  with  oilcloth  answers  every  purpose. 
A  better  equipment  would  include  a  well-built  bench,  such  as  that 
shown  in  Fig.  243,  the  top  and  back  of  which  are  covered  with  zinc. 

Where  no  staining- table  is  possible,  temporary  coverings  of  oil- 
cloth may  be  provided  to  lay  over  any  bench  which  is  convenient  for 
the  purpose. 

Care  of  hrmlics  and  materials  used  in  finishing  wood.  Shellac 
should  be  kept  in  glass  or  pot- 
tery or  aluminum  receptacles 
but  not  in  any  metal  like  tin, 
which  darkens  it.  A  good 
plan  is  to  have  a  bottle  foi' 
fresh,  untouched  shellac,  a 
wide-mouthed  jar  for  that 
which  has  been  diluted  and 
used,  and  an  enameled  cup  for 
use.  There  should  also  be  a 
special  brush,  Fig.  244.  At 
the    time    of    using,    first    see 

that  the  brush  is  soft  and  jiliable.  If  it  is  stiff,  it  can  be  soaked 
quickly  and  softened  in  a  little  alcohol  in  the  cup.  Tliis  alcohol  may 
then  be  poured  into  the  jar  and  mixed  in  by  shaking.  Then  pour  out 
a  little  from  the  jar  into  the  cup,  and  if  it  is  too  thin,  thicken  with 
some  fresh  shellac.  After  using,  pour  back  the  residue  into  the  jar, 
carefully  wiping  the  brush  on  the  edge  of  the  jar;  and  if  it  is  not 
to  be  used  again  for  some  time,  rinse  it  in  a  little  alcohol,  which  may 
also  be  poured  into  the  jar,  which  should  then  be  covered.  What 
little  shellac  remains  in  the  brush  and  cup  will  do  no  harm  and  the 
brush  may  be  left  standing  in  the  cu])  until  required.  The  import- 
ant things  are  to  keep  the  shellac  cup  and  brush  for  shellac  only, 
(indeed,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  label  them  "SHELLAC  ONLY,")  and 
to  keep  the  shellac  covered  so  that  the  alcohol  in  it  will  not  evapo- 
rate. In  a  pattern-making  shop,  where  the  shellac  cup  is  to  lie  fre- 
quently used,  it  is  well  to  have  cups  with  covers  thru  which  the 
brushes  hang,  like  the  brush  in  a  mucilage  jar. 

Varnish  brushes  need  to  he  cleaned  thoroly  after  each  using.  If 
they  get  dry  they  become  too  hard  to  be  cleaned  without  great  dif- 
ficultv. 


150 


llAXDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 


Brushes  for  water  stains  are  easily  taken  care  of  by  washing 
water  and  then  haying  them  flat  in  a  box.  Cups  in  which  the 
stains  have  been  used  can  also  be  easily  rinsed  with  water. 

Brushes  for  oil  stains  are 
most  easily  kept  in  good  con- 
dition, by  being  hung  in  a 
l)nisb-keeper.  Fig.  545,  (sold 
l)y  Devoe  &  Reynolds,  101 
Fulton  St.,  X.  Y.  C)  partly 
filled  witli  turpentine.  The 
same  brushes  may  also  be  used 
for  filkTS. 

Oil  stains  should  1)6  poured 
back  into  their  respective  bot- 
tles, and  the  cups  wiped  out 
witb  cotton  waste.  When  they 
get  in  bad  condition,  they  can 
bi'  tlean('(l  readily  after  a  pre- 
liminary soaking  in  a  strong- 
solution  of  potash.  The  same 
treatnu'nt  may  be  given  to 
brushes,  but  if  they  are  left 
soaking  too  long  in  the  solu- 
tion, file  lu'istles  will  be  eaten 
off. 


;  witb 
water 


Fig.  245.     Brusli-keeper. 


EQL'IPMEXT  AND  CARE  OP  THE  SHOP 


References : * 


Murray.   Year  Rook   1900.  p.   69. 
Bailey,  ,1/.  T.  Ma<i.  9:138.     Dec.   "07, 
Rouillioii.  pp.  48-90. 
Haminaciier  aiul   Sclilcnuner,  passim 


•^For    general    bihlioyrapliy.    see   p.    4. 


Chapter  VII. 

THE  COMMON  JOINTS. 

Wherever  two  or  more  pieces  of  wood  are  fastened  together,  we 
have  what  is  properly  called  joinery.  In  common  usage  the  term  in- 
dicates the  framing  of  the  interior  wood  finish  of  buildings  and  ships^ 
but  it  is  also  used  to  include  cabinet-making,  which  is  the  art  of  con- 
structing furniture,  and  even  the  trades  of  the  wheelwright,  carriage- 
maker,  and  cooper.  Since  joinery  involves  the  constant  use  of  joints^ 
a  reference  list  of  them,  with  illustrations,  definitions,  uses,  and  di- 
rections for  making  tyi)ical  ones  may  be  of  convenience  to  workers 
in  M'ood. 

HEADING   JOINTS 

No.  1.  A  lapped  and  strapped  joint.  Fig.  '2iSA,  p.  1T7,  is  made  by 
laying  the  end  of  one  timber  over  another  and  fastening  them  both 
together  with  bent  straps  on  the  ends  of  which  are  screws  by  which 
they  may  be  tightened.  It  is  a  very  strong  joint  and  is  used  where 
the  beams  need  lengthening  as  in  false  work  or  in  long  ladders  and 
flag  poles. 

No.  2.  A  fished  joint.  Fig.  26-i,  is  made  by  butting  the  squared 
ends  of  tw^o  timbers  together  and  placing  short  pieces  of  wood  or  iron, 
called  fish-plates,  over  the  faces  of  the  timbers  and  bolting  or  spiking 
the  whole  firmly  together.  It  is  used  for  joining  timbers  in  the  di- 
rection of  their  length,  as  in  boat  construction. 

No.  3.  In  a  fished  joint.  Fig.  264,  keys  are  often  inserted  between 
the  fish-plate  and  beam  at  right  angles  to  the  bolts  in  order  to  lessen 
the  strain  that  comes  upon  the  bolts  when  the  joint  is  subjected  to 
tension.  In  wide  pieces  and  for  extra  strength,  as  in  bridge  work,  the 
bolts  may  be  staggered. 

Nos.  -4.  5,  6  and  7.  A  scarf  or  spliced  joint.  Fig.  264,  is  made  by 
joining  together  with  flush  surfaces  the  ends  of  two  timbers  in  such 
a  way  as  to  enable  them  to  resist  compression,  as  in  Xo.  4;  tension, 
as  in  No.  5 ;    both,  as  in  No.  6,  where  the  scarf  is  tabled ;    or  cross 

151 


152 


IIANUWOKK   IX    WOOL). 


strain  as  in  No.  7.  No.  4  is  used  in  house  sills  and  in  splicing  out 
short  posts,  Nos.  5  and  G  in  open  frame  work.  No.  7  with  or  without 
the  fish-plate,  is  used  in  hoais  and  canoes,  and  is  sometimes  called  a 
boat-huilder's  joint,  to  distinguish  it  from  No.  4,  a  carpenter's  joint. 
A  joint  to  resist  cross  strain  is  stronger  wlien  scarfed  in  the  direction 
of  the  strain  than  across  it.  No.  7  is  the  plan,  not  elevation,  of  a 
joint  to  receive  vertical  cross  strain. 


BUTT    JOIXTS 

No.  S.  A  doweled  hiitt-joiitt.  Fig.  2G4,  is  made  hy  inserting,  with 
glue,  dowel-pins  into  holes  bored  into  the  two  iiu'iid)ers.     The  end  of 

one  luendx'r  is  butted  against 
the  face  or  edge  of  the  other. 
It  is  used  in  cabinet-making 
wlit'ic  the  presence  of  nails 
Willi  I  (I   l)e  unseemly. 

Ill  a  doweled  butt-joint  the 
(liiwcis  may  go  clear  thru  the 
outside  member,  and  be  fin- 
ished as  Inittons  on  the  out- 
side, wliere  they  show.  To  lay 
out  tliis  joint  mark  near  the 
ends  of  tlie  edges  of  the  abut- 
ting mendjer,  N,  Fig.  246,  cen- 
ter-lines A  B.  Draw  on  the 
otlier  member  Y,  a  sharp  pen- 
cil-line, to  which  when  the 
lines  AB  on  N  ai'e  fitted,  N  will  be  in  its  proper  place.  Carry  this 
line  around  to  the  other  side  of  Y  and  locate  on  it  the  proper  centers 
for  the  dowel-holes,  E  and  F.  Then  fasten  on  the  end  of  X  a  hand- 
screw  in  such  a  way  that  the  jaws  will  be  flush  with  the  end.  With 
another  handscrew,  clamp  this  handscrew  to  Y',  in  such  a  way  that 
tlie  marks  on  the  two  pieces  match,  A  to  C  and  B  to  D,  Fig.  247. 
Bore  at  tlie  proper  places,  E  and  F,  holes  directly  thru  Y  into  X. 

Fig.  248  illuvstrates  the  gluing  together  of  a  four-legged  stand  in 
which  tlie  joints  are  made  in  tliis  way.  The  cross-lap  joints  of  the 
stretebei-s  ai'e  fii'st  glued  together,  tlien  tlio  other  joints  are  assem- 
bled withoui  glue,  to  see  that  all  the  parts  lit  and  tinally  two  opposite 


r 
Y 

> 

> 

c 

i.ay-dul  for  Thru  Doweling-. 


Till-:  coM:\rox  joints. 


153 


Fig-.  247.     Thru  Boring-  for  a  Butt  Joint. 


fflp 

IP 

■mmmmmm. 

t 
1 

d 

^' 

< 

FifiT.  248.     Gluing  Up  a  Four-leg-ged  Stand. 


154 


IIAXDWORK    IX    WOOD. 


sides  are  glued  at  a  time,     i'ieees  ol'  [)n|)rr  are  laid  inside  the  gluing 
blocks  to  prevent  them  from  sticking  to  the  'egs. 

In  case  tlie  ddwels  are  to  be  hidden  the  chief  diflficnlty  is  to  lo- 
cate the  holes  jiroperly.     One  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows:     To 

dowel  the  end  of  one  member 
against  thi'  faee  of  the  other  as 
a  stiinger  into  a  rail  or  a  rail 
into  a  table  leg,  first  lay  out 
the  position  of  the  dowels  in 
the  end  of  the  first  member, 
X.  Fig.  ^?41).  Gage  a  center-line, 
A  B,  across  this  end  length- 
wise, locate  the  centers  of  the 
dowel-holes,  and  s(piaie  across 
with  a  knife  point,  as  CD  and 
KV.  <!age  a  line  on  the  other 
member  to  correspond  with  the 
line  AI>.  On  the  face  so 
gaged,  lay  the  first  member  on 
its  side  so  that  one  arris  lies 
)tt'  the  [loints   1)  and   F,  to  get  the 


0=; 

A 

^/^ 

^ 

"/ 
1 

I 

P 

f                /^ 

1 

^^ 

R 

Fig'.  249.     Layiiijr  out  a  Dowel  Joint. 


along  this  gaged   'iiu'  and    pi  ie 
centers  of  the  dowel-holes. 

If.  as  is  usual,  theif  are  a  nuiidier  ot  similar  joints  to  be  made, 
a  device  like  that  •^howii  in  Fig.  "i 4!i  will  expedite  matters.  1  and 
:<!  are  [joints  of  hiai's  diixcii  thru  a  piece  of  soft  wood,  which  has  been 
notched  out.  and  aie  as  tar  apait  as  the  dowels.  A-1  is  the  distance 
from  the  woi'kiiig  '.'^Vjlv  of  the  rail  to  the  first  dowel.  The  same 
measuie  can  he  \\>vi\  tiom  the  end  of  the  leg. 

\Adien  the  ceiileis  ai'e  all  niarl-;ed.  hoie  the  holes.  Insert  the 
dowe's  into  the  hole-  aiul  uud<e  a  trial  asstMubly.  If  any  rail  is 
twisted  from  its  |iio|»er  plane,  note  caitd'ully  wheie  the  error  is.  take 
a])art.  glue  a  dowel  into  the  hole,  that  is  wrong,  pare  it  oif  ilush  with 
the  surface,  and  le-hme  in  such  a  ])lace  that  the  parts,  when  assem- 
bled, will  come  up  ti'ue.  When  e\-erything  lits.  glue  and  c'amp  together. 

Sii.  '.I.  .1  hiC'/ntiii'd  jdiiil.  Fiu'.  •.'(■>  I.  is  made  by  driving  nails 
diagonalh  thru  the  corneis  of  one  uu'udfM'  into  the  other.  It  is  used 
in   faslening  the  studding  1o  the  sill   in   balloon   fi'aming. 

A'o.  !().  A  i/nnr-hiill  juiiil.  Fig.  •.'(•.!,  is  made  hy  inserting  an  iron 
bolt   tbi'U   a.  hole    in    one    meniher   and    into    the   other   to   meet  a    nut 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS.  155 

inserted  from  the  side  of  the  second  member.  It  is  very  strong  and 
is  used  in  bencli  construction,  wooden  machinery,  etc. 

No.  11.  A  plain  butt-joint,  Fig.  264,  is  one  in  which  the  mem- 
bers join  endwise  or  edgewise  without  overlapping.  It  is  used  on 
returns  as  in  ordinary  boxes  and  cases. 

A^o.  12.  A  glued  and  hloclrd  joint.  Fig.  264,  is  made  by  gaiing 
and  rubbing  a  block  in  the  inside  corner  of  two  pieces  which  arc 
butted  and  glued  together.  It  is  used  in  stair-work  and  cabinei:- 
work,  as  in  the  corners  of  bureaus. 

No.  13.  A  hopper-joint.^  Fig.  264,  is  a  butt-joint,  but  is  peculiar 
in  that  the  edges  of  the  boards  are  not  square  with  their  faces  on 
account  of  the  pitch  of  the  sides.  It  is  used  in  hoppers,  bins,  chutes, 
etc.  The  difficulty  in  laying  out  this  joint  is  to  obtain  the  proper 
angle  for  the  edges  of  the  pieces.  This  may  be  done  as  follows : 
After  the  pieces  are  planed  to  the  correct  thickness,  plane  the  upper 
and  lower  edges  of  the  end  pieces  to  the  correct  bevel  as  shown  by 
the  pitch  of  the  sides.  Lay  out  the  pitch  of  the  sides  of  the  hopper 
on  the  outside  of  the  end  pieces.  From  the  ends  of  these  lines,  on 
the  upper  and  lower  beveled  edges  score  lines  at  right  angles  with 
the  knife  and  try-square.  Connect  these  lines  on  what  will  be  the 
inside  of  the  hopper.  Saw  off  the  surplus  wood  and  plane  to  the 
lines  thus  scored.  The  side  pieces  may  be  finished  in  the  same  way, 
and  the  parts  are  then  ready  to  be  assembled. 

HALVING- JOINTS 

A  halved  joint  is  one  in  which  half  the  thickness  of  each  member 
is  notched  out  and  the  remaining  portion  of  one  just  fits  into  the 
notch  in  the  other,  so  that  the  up23er  and  under  surfaces  of  the  mem- 
bers are  flush. 

No.  IJ/.-  A  cross-lap  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  a  halved  joint  in  which 
both  members  project  both  ways  from  the  joint.  This  is  a  very  com- 
mon joint  used  in  both  carpentry  and  joinery,  as  where  stringers 
cross  each  other  in  the  same  plane. 

The  two  pieces  are  first  dressed  exactly  to  the  required  size, 
either  separately  or  by  the  method  of  making  duplicate  parts,  see 
Chap.  IX.  p.  204.  Lay  one  member,  called  X,  across  tbe  other  in 
the  position  which  they  are  to  occupv  when  finished  and  mark  plainly 
their  upper  faces,  which  will  be  flush  when  the  piece  is  finished. 
Locate  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  lower  piece,  called  Y.  on  one 


156  HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 

arris,  and  from  tliis  jxtiiit  lay  off  on  this  arris  half  tlie  width  of  the 
upper  piece,  X.  From  this  point  square  across  Y  with  the  Ixuife 
and  try-square.  Lay  X  again  in  its  pk^ce,  exactly  along  the  line 
just  scored.  Then  nurrk  with  the  knife  on  Y  the  width  of  X,  which 
may  then  be  removed  and  the  second  line  squared  across  Y.  From 
these  two  lines  square  across  both  edges  of  Y"  to  approximately  one- 
half  the  thickness.  Xow  turn  X  face  down,  lay  Y  on  it,  and  mark 
it  in  the  same  way  as  Y.  Set  the  gage  at  one-half  the  thickness  of 
the  pieces,  and  gage  between  the  lines  on  the  edges,  taking  care  to 
hold  the  head  of  the  gage  against  the  marked  faces.  Then  even  if 
one  piece  is  gaged  so  as  to  be  cut  a  little  too  deep,  the  other  will  be 
gaged  so  as  to  be  cut  proportionately  less,  and  the  joint  will  fit. 

Cut  a  slight  triangular  groove  on  the  waste  side  of  the  knife- 
marks,  Fig.  91,  p.  GG,  saw  accurately  to  the  gaged  lines,  and  chisel 
out  the  waste  as  in  a  dado,  see  Figs.  70  and  Tl,  p.  oO. 

The  bottom  of  the  dado  thus  cut  should  be  fiat  so  as  to  afi'ord 
surface  for  gluing.  When  well  made,  a  cross-la})  joint  does  not  need 
to  be  pounded  together  but  will  lit  tight  under  pressure  of  the  hands. 

Xo.  15.  A  middle-lap  joint  or  hid  red  tee,  Fig.  2Go,  is  made  in 
the  same  way  as  a  cross-lap  joint,  l)ut  one  member  projects  from  the 
joint  in  only  one  direction.  It  is  used  to  join  stretchers  to  rails  as 
in  lloor  timbers. 

Xo.  Hi.  All  cml-tiiii  joint.  Fig.  ■Jii.').  is  nu\de  in  the  same  way  as  a 
cross-lap  joint  exce])t  that  the  joint  is  at  the  end  of  both  mend^ers.  It 
is  used  at  the  cornei's  of  sills  and  plates,  also  sometimes  in  chair-seats. 

To  make  an  end-lap  joint,  i)lace  the  members  in  their  relative 
positions,  faces  up,  and  mark  jilainly.  Mark  carefully  on  each  mem- 
ber the  inside  corner,  allowing  the  end  of  each  member  slightly  ( 1/1  (>"  ) 
to  overlap  the  other.  Square  across  at  these  points  with  a  sharp 
knife  point,  on  the  under  side  of  the  upper  member,  and  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  lower  member.  Xow  proceed  as  in  the  cross-lap 
joint,  except  that  tlie  gaged  line  runs  around  the  end  and  the  cut- 
ting must  be  done  exactly  to  this  line. 

Xo.  17.  In  an  enddiip  joint  on  mt)leted  piecei^.  Fig.  265,  the 
joint  must  be  adapted  to  the  I'abbet.  The  rabbet  should  therefore 
l)e  plowed  before  the  joint  is  made.  Tbe  rablx't  at  the  end  of  tlie 
])iece  X  is  cut  not  the  entii'e  width  oC  the  piece  Y,  but  only  the  width 
of  the  lap, — c-f=a-e.  This  joint  is  used  occasionally  in  picture- 
frames. 


THE    COMMON   JOINTS.  157 

No.  IS.  A  dovetail  hah-ing  or  lap-do  retail,  Fig.  265,  is  a  mid- 
dle-lap joint  with  the  pin  made  dovetail  in  shape,  and  is  thus  better 
able  to  resist  tension.     It  is  used  for  strong  tee  joints. 

No.  19.  A  herded  hairing.  Fig.  265,  is  made  like  a  middle-lap 
joint  except  that  the  inner  end  of  the  upper  member  is  thinner  so 
that  the  adjoining  cheeks  are  beveled.  It  is  very  strong  when  loaded 
above.     It  was  formerly  used  in  house  framing. 

MODIFIED  HALVING  JOINTS 

No.  20.  A  nolelieil  joint.  Fig.  265,  is  made  by  cutting  out  a 
portion  of  one  timber.  It  is  used  where  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the 
height  occupied  by  tlie  upper  timber.  Joists  are  notched  on  to 
wall  plates. 

No.  21.  A  eliccl-ed  joint  or  double  notcli,  Fig.  265,  is  made  by 
cutting  out  notcbcs  from  both  the  timbers  so  as  to  engage  each 
other.  It  is  used  where  a  single  notch  would  weaken  one  member 
too  much. 

No.  22.  A  cogged  or  corl-ed  or  caulked  joint.  Fig.  265,  is  made 
by  cutting  out  only  parts  of  the  notch  on  the  lower  })iece,  leaving  a 
'"cog"  uncut.  From  the  u[)i>er  piece  a  notch  is  cut  only  wide  enough 
to  receive  the  cog.  A  cogged  joint  is  stronger  than  a  notched  because 
tlie  upper  beam  is  not  weakened  at  its  point  of  support.  It  is  used 
in  heavy  framing. 

No.  2S.  A  forked  tenon  joint.  Fig.  265,  is  made  by  cutting  a 
folk  in  the  end  of  one  member,  and  notching  the  other  meml)er  to 
lit  into  the  fork,  so  that  neither  piece  can  slip.  It  is  used  in  knock- 
down furniture  and  in  connecting  a  muntin  to  a  rail,  Avliere  it  is 
desired  that  the  muntin  should  run  thru  and  also  that  the  rail  be 
continuous. 

No.  21/.  A  r<d)het  or  rebate  or  ledge  joint.  Fig.  266,  is  made  by 
cutting  out  a  portion  of  tlie  side  or  end  of  a  board  or  timber  X  to 
receive  the  end  or  side  of  another,  Y.  It  nuiy  then  be  nailed  from 
either  the  side  or  end  or  from  both.  The  neatest  way  in  small  boxes 
is  from  the  end,  or  better  still  it  may  be  only  glued. 

No.  25.  A  dado  or  g  ran  red  joint,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by  cutting 
in  one  member  a  groove  into  which  the  end  or  edge  of  the  other 
member  fits.  Properly  speaking  a  groove  runs  with  the  grain,  a 
dado  across  it,  so  that  the  bottom  of  a  drawer  is  inserted  in  a  groove 
while  the  l)ack  of  the  drawer  is  inserted  in  a  dado.     Where  the  whole 


158  ITAXDWORK    IX    WOOD. 

of  the  end  of  one  nieniber  is  let  into  tlie  other,  siieh  a  dado  is  also 
called  a  housed  dado.     Treads  of  stairs  are  housed  into  string  boards. 

To  lav  out  a  dado  joint :  After  carefully  dressing  up  both  pieces 
to  be  joined,  locate  accurately  with  a  knife  jioint,  on  the  member  to 
be  dadoed,  called  X,  one  side  of  the  dado,  and  square  across  the  piece 
with  a  try-square  and  knife.  Then  locate  the  other  side  of  the  dado 
by  placing,  if  possible,  the  proper  part  of  tbe  other  member,  called  Y, 
close  to  the  line  drawn.  If  this  method  of  superposition  is  not  pos- 
sible, locate  by  measurement.  Mark,  with  a  knife  point,  on  X,  the 
thickness  thus  ol)tained.  Square  both  these  lines  as  far  across  the 
edges  of  X  as  Y  is  to  be  inserted.  Gage  to  the  required  depth  on 
l)Oth  edges  with  tbe  marking-gage. 

To  cut  tlic  joint:  First  make  with  the  knife  a  triangular  groove 
on  the  waste  side  of  each  line,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  !•!,  p.  GO,  and 
starting  in  the  grooxcs  thus  made,  saw  witli  tbe  baek-saw  to  the  gaged 
lines  on  both  edges.  Tbe  waste  mav  now  be  taken  out  either  with  a 
chisel  or  with  a  routei-.  Fig.  I'i2,  \).  s;!.  Tbe  second  member.  Y. 
shoubl  just  tit  into  a  dado  thus  made,  but  if  tbe  joint  is  too  tight, 
the  cheeks  of  the  da(b)  nuiy  be  pared  witb  a  ebisi''.  In  delicate  work 
it  is  often  wise  not  to  saw  at  all,  but  to  use  only  tbe  knife  and  chisel. 

Xo.  Ji).  A  iliido  mill  nihhrt.  Fig.  500,  is  made  by  cutting  a  dado 
in  one  member,  X,  and  a  rabbet  on  the  oilier.  ^'.  in  such  a  way  that 
tlie  projecting  parts  of  l)oth  members  will  lit  tight  in  the  returns  of 
the  other  member.  It  is  used  in  boxes  and  gives  plenty  of  surface 
for  gluing. 

Xo.  ,J7.  A  i/iiilo.  loiiijur  mid  nihhrf.  Fig.  ■,?()<),  is  a  conip(^und 
joint,  made  by  cutting  a  rabbet  on  one  mend)er.  Y,  and  then  a  dado 
in  this  rabbet,  into  which  fits  a  tongue  of  the  other  mendier,  X.  It 
is  used  in  machine-made  drawers. 

No.  i2S.  A  (htvefaU  diido  or  fjaiii.  Fig.  ^(iO,  is  uiade  by  cutting 
one  or  botb  of  the  sides  of  tbe  infitting  nieudiei',  V,  ou  an  angle  so 
that  it  has  to  be  slid  into  place  and  cannot  be  pulled  out  sidewise. 
It  is  used  in  book-cases  and  similar  wcu'k,  in  wliieh  the  shelves  are 
fixed. 

'l"o  make  tliis  joint,  lirst  lay  out  tbe  do\etail  on  tbe  inend)er  to 
be  in^ei'ted.  ealled  \' .  tlius:  At-ross  one  end  s(|uare  a  line  (A  B. 
Xo.  '->8).  at  tbe  (le|itb  to  wbicb  tills  uieniber  is  to  be  dadoeil  in.  Set 
the  bevel-s(|U;i!'e  at  I  be  [iroper  angle  for  a  do\'etail.  Fig.  "i-lO.  Score 
this  angle  on  tlu'  edij-es  of  the  meinbei'.  as  at  ('  1).     Cut  a  groove  with 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


159 


a  knife  on  the  waste  side  of  A  B.     Saw  to  the  depth  A  C,  and  chisel 
ont  the  interior  angle  A  C  D. 

Then  lay  out  the  other  menil;)er,  X,  thus :  mark  with  the  knife  the 
proper  place  for  the  flat  side  of 


/f  /A         JK  JK  i 


MiThing  focfj->^ 


Y,  square  this  line  across  the 
face  and  on  the  edges  as  for  a 
simple  dado.  Lay  out  the 
thickness  of  Y  on  the  face  of 
X  by  superposition  or  otherwise 
and  square  the  face  and  edges, 
not  with  a  knife  but  with  a 
sharp  pencil  point.  Gage  the 
required  depth  on  the  edges. 
Xow  with  the  bevel-square  as  al- 
ready set,  lay  out  the  angle  A  C 
D  on  the  edges  of  X,  and  across 
the  face  at  C  score  a  line  with 
knife  and  try-S(|uare.  Cut  out 
grooves  in  the  waste  for  the 
saw  as  in  a  simple  dado,  and 
saw  to  the  proper  depth  and  at 
the  proper  angle.  Chisel  or 
rout  out  the  waste  and  when 
complete,  fit  the  pieces  together. 

No.  29.     A  f/ain  joint.  Fig. 
266,  is  a  dado  whicli  runs  only 

partly  across  one  member,  X.  In  order  to  make  the  edges  of  both 
members  flush  and  to  conceal  the  blind  end  of  the  gain,  the  corner 
of  the  other  member,  Y,  is  correspondingly  notched  out.  In  book 
shelves  a  gain  gives  a  better  appearance  than  a  dado. 

A  gain  joint  is  laid  out  in  the  same  way  as  the  dado,  except  that 
the  lines  are  not  carried  clear  across  the  face  of  X,  and  only  one 
edge  is  squared  and  gaged  to  the  required  depth.  Knife  grooves  are 
made  in  the  waste  for  starting  the  saw  as  in  the  dado.  Before  saw- 
ing, the  blind  end  of  the  gain  is  to  be  chiseled  out  for  a  little  space 
so  as  to  give  play  for  the  back-saw  in  cutting  down  to  the  required 
depth.  To  avoid  sawing  too  deep  at  the  blind  end,  the  sawing  and 
chiselino;  out  of  waste  mav  be  carried  on  alternatelv,  a  little  at  a 


Fig-.  250      Laying-  Out  a  Dovetail  Joint. 


1(30 


]1AXD\V()KK   IX    WOOD. 


Fig.  251.      Depth  jrayp 
for  Dado. 


time,  till  the  r('(|uiiv(l  depth  is  reaclu'(h  It  is  easy  to  measure  the 
depth  of  the  cut  hy  means  of  a  small  nail  ])rojeeting  the  proper 
amount  from  a  trial  stick.  Fig.  -^51.  The  use  of  the  router.  Fig.  122, 
p.  83,  facilitates  tlu'  cutting,  and  insures  an  even  depth. 

MOKTISE-AXD-TEXOX    J OIXTS 

The  tenon  in  its  simplest  form  is  made  by  dividing  the  end  of  a 

piece  of  wood  into  three  parts  and  cutting  out  rectangular  pieces  on 

both  sides  of  the  pait   left  in   the  middle.     The 

mortise  is  the  rectangular  hole  cut  to  receive  the 

tenon    and    is    nuide    slightly    deeper    than    the 

tenon  is  long.     The  sides  of  the  tenon   and   of 

the  mortise  are  called  "cheeks"  and  the  "slioul- 

(k'rs"  of  the  tenon  are  the  parts  abutting  against 

the  mortised  piece. 

Xo.  SO.     A  .^ti(h  iHorflsc-mnl-fnitJii.   Fig.  2(50.  is  made  by  cutting 

only  two  sides  of  the  tenon   beam.      It   was  formerly  used  for   lower 

ends  of  studding  or  other  upright  })ieces  to  pi-event  lateral  motion. 

Xo.  SI.  A  llirii  iiiiirfisr-iiin/-irn<ni.  Fig.  2(i<i.  is  made  by  cutting 
the  mortise  clear  thi-u  one  meml)er  and  by  cutting  the  de])th  of  the 
tenon  e(|ual  to  or  more  than  the  thickness  of  the  mortised  member. 
The  cheeks  of  the  tenon  may  be  cut  on  two  or  foui'  sides.  It  is  used 
in  window  sashes. 

A  thru  moi'tise-and-tenon  joint  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  a 
blind  mortise-and-tenon  (see  below),  excejit  that  the  mortise  is  laid 
out  on  the  two  opposite  surfaces,  and  the  boiing  and  cutting  are  don  • 
from  both,  cutting  first  from  one  side  and  then  fi'oui  the  other. 

Xo.  S^.  A  hiiihl  iiiorlisc-iniiJ-triioii .  l-'ig.  2(')(),  is  similar  to  the 
simyde  mortise-and-tenon  dest-iibed  in  'Ml  The  tenon  does  not  ex- 
tend thru  the  luoiliscd  uieiuber  and  the  cheeks  ot  the  tenon  nuiy  be 
cut  on  two  or  I'oui-  sides. 

'I'o  make  a  blind  mortise-and-tenon.  tirst  nudce  the  tenon  thus: 
Locate  accuiatciv  with  a  knife  point  the  shoudiTs  of  the  tenon  and 
s(|uare  enliicly  ai'ouiid  the  piece.  On  the  working  edge  near  the  end 
mark  the  thickness  of  the  tenon.  Set  tlu'  nuirking-gage  at  the  proper 
distance  limn  the  working  face  to  (UU'  cheek  ol'  the  tenon  and  gage 
the  end  and  the  two  edges  between  the  end  and  the  knife-lines.  Eeset 
the  gage  to  mark  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  and  gage  that  in  the  same 
wav  from   the  wmkim;   lace.     'I'heii   mark   and  gage  the  width  of  the 


THE  co.^I.^[ox  joixts.  161 

tenon  in  the  same  way.  Whenever  there  are  several  tenons  of  the 
same  size  to  be  cut,  they  should  all  be  laid  out  together,  that  is  the 
marking-gage  set  once  to  mark  all  face  cheeks  and  once  to  mark  a  1 
back  cheeks.  If  a  mortise-gage  is  available,  use  that.  Always  mark 
from  the  working  face  or  working  edge.  Cut  out  a  triangular  groove 
on  the  waste  side  of  the  knife  lines  (at  the  shoulders)  as  in  cutting  a 
dado.  Fig.  !)1,  }).  ()(>. 

In  cutting  the  tenon,  first  rip-saw  Just  outside  the  gaged  lines, 
then  crosscut  at  the  shoulder  lines.  Do  all  the  rip-sawing  before  the 
crosscutting.  If  the  pieces  are  small  the  back-saw  may  be  used  for 
all  cuts.  It  is  well  to  chamfer  the  arrises  at  the  end  of  tbe  tenon  to 
insure  its  starting  easily  into  the  mortise. 

Locate  the  ends  of  the  mortise  and  square  lines  across  with  a 
sharp  pencil  in  order  to  avoid  leaving  knife  nuirks  on  the  finished 
piece.  Then  locate  the  sides  of  the  mortise  from  the  thickness  of  the 
tenon,  already  determined,  and  gage  between  the  cross  lines.  As  in 
the  case  of  like  tenons,  if  there  are  a  nuudjer  of  mortises  all  alike, 
set  the  gage  only  twice  for  them  all. 

In  cuttliKj  the  tiiDrlise,  fiist  fasten  the  piece  so  that  it  will  rest 
solid  on  the  bench.  Tliis  may  be  done  either  in  a  tail  vise  or  l)y  a 
handscrew,  or  by  c'amping  the  Ijendi-hook  firm'y  in  the  vise  in  such  a 
way  that  the  cleat  of  the  bench-hook  overhangs  the  piece.  Then  ta]) 
the  l)ench-hook  with  a  mallet  and  the  piece  will  be  found  to  be  beld 
tightly  down  on  the  bench.     See  Fig.  76,  p.  58. 

It  is  common  to  loosen  up  the  wood  by  first  boring  a  series  of  ad- 
joining holes  whose  centers  folow  the  center-'ine  of  the  mortise  and 
Avhose  diameter  is  slightly  less  than  the  width  of  the  mortise.  Take 
care  to  bore  perpendicularly  to  the  surface,  see  Fig.  13T.  ]).  8(i,  ami 
no  deeper  than  necessary.  Dig  out  the  portions  of  wood  between  the 
auger  holes  and  chisel  off  thin  slices,  back  to  the  gage-lines  and  to 
the  knife-lines,  taking  care  all  rhe  time  to  keep  the  sides  of  the  mor- 
tise perpendicular  to  the  face.  This  may  be  tested  l)y  placing  the 
chisel  against  the  side  of  the  mortise  and  standing  a'ongside  it  a 
try-square  with  its  head  resting  on  tbe  surface. 

Finally  test  the  tenon  in  the  uiortise  noting  carefully  where  it 
pinches,  if  anywhere,  and  trim  carefully.  The  tighter  it  fits  without 
danger  of  splitting  the  mortised  member,  the  stronger  will  be  the  joint. 

Many  prefer  to  dig  mortises  without  first  boring  holes.  For  this 
purpose  a  uiortise-chisci.  Fig.  (is.  ]>.  T^A.  is  desiral)le.     The  method  is 


162  llAXDAVORK   IN    WOOD. 

to  begin  at  the  middle  of  the  mortise,  phicing  the  chisel — whicli 
should  be  as  wide  as  the  mortise — at  right  angles  to  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  Chisel  ont  a  \^  shaped  opening  about  as  deep  as  the  mortise, 
and  then  from  this  hoh'  work  back  to  eaeh  end.  occasionally  prying 
out  the  chips.  Work  with  the  liat  side  of  the  chisel  toward  the  mid- 
dle except  the  last  cut  or  two  at  the  ends  of  the  mortise. 

Xo.  SS.  In  a  niortisc-aud-fnioii  joint  on  rabbrted  pieces,  Fig. 
v^6G,  the  tenon  is  as  much  shorter  ou  one  side  than  the  other  as  the 
rabbet  is  wide.     Jn  Fig.  33,  ab=cd. 

Xo.  SJ/.  A  wedged  niortise-aiid-tenon  joinf.  Fig.  26(i,  is  a  thru 
joint  in  whicli  after  the  tenon  is  driven  lioiiic,  wedges  are  driven  in 
between  the  tenon  and  the  sides  of  the  mortise.  The  wedges  are 
dipped  in  glue  oi-  wliite  lead  before  l)eing  inserted.  The  sides  of  the 
mortise  nuiy  be  slightly  dovetailed.  It  is  used  to  keep  a  tenon  tightly 
fixed  as  in  wheel  s})okes. 

Xo.  So.  .1  inuh/cd  inoiiise-ond-tenon  joint,  Fig.  366,  may  also  be 
made  ))v  driving  the  wedges  into  saw  kerfs  in  the  tenon  instead  of 
along  its  sides  as  in  34.  It  is  used  in  ornamental  joints  as  well  as 
in  carpentry. 

Xo.  36.  A  fo.r-titil  tenon.  Fig.  •iiKi.  is  a  blind  inortise-and-tenon 
in  which  the  mortise  is  made  slightly  wider  at  the  bottom  than  the 
width  of  the  tenon.  Wedges  a)e  di'iven  into  saw  kerfs  in  the  tenon 
before  inserting  into  the  mortise;  then  when  it  is  driven  home  the 
wedges  spread  out  the  tenou  and  make  it  fill  out  the  mortise.  It  is 
used  in  strong  doors  and  also  where  the  moi'tised  member  is  already 
in  place  so  that  a  wedged  niortise-r.nd-tenon  is  impossible. 

Xo.  o7.  A  dorctail  niortisc-inul-lcnon .  Fig.  3(i6,  is  a  thru  inor- 
tise-and-ten(m  beveled  on  one  side  so  as  to  form  half  a  dovetail.  The 
corresponding  side  of  the  mortise  is  also  beveled  and  made  wide 
enough  so  that  when  the  tenon  is  ])ressed  well  up  against  its  beveled 
side  a  wedge  may  be  di'iven  into  the  s])ace  left  on  the  straight  side. 
It  is  used  to  tenon  a  beam  into  a  post  especially  where  the  post  is 
fixed  against  a  wall.  It  is  also  used  in  machinery  frames  which  are 
made  of  wood. 

Xo.  -iS.  A  /linncd  niortisc-dtid-tcnon.  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which  a 
]iin  is  diiven  thru  ho'es  hored  thiu  the  mortised  beam  and  thru  the 
tenon  to  keep  them  from  di'awing  a])art.  it  is  used  in  heavy  framing 
as  in  bridges,  in  wagon-making,  in  window-sash,  etc. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


163 


No.  39.  A  keyed  niortise-aiid-tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which  the 
tenon  protrudes  thru  the  mortise  far  enough  to  receive  a  removable 
key  and  thus  be  drawn  up  tight  to  the  mortised  member.  It  is  used 
in  work-benches  and  in  ornamental  joints  like  knock-down  bookcases 
and  in  other  mission  furniture. 

The  keyed  mortise-and-tenon  is  made  as  in  a  thru  mortise-and- 
tenon,  except  that  before  cutting  the  tenons  the  holes  for  wedges 
should  be  laid  out  thus:  measuring 
from  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon,  locate 
by  superposition  or  measurement  the 
outside  of  the  mortised  member.  De- 
duct from  this  1/16"  and  square  a  fine 
pencil -line  across  the  face  and  opposite 
side.  This  line  will  be  the  inside  of 
the  hole  for  the  wedge,  and  the  1/16" 
is  deducted  to  make  sure  that  the  key 
wedges  against  the  mortised  member. 
On  the  upper  surface  of  the  tenon,  lay 
off  toward  the  end  tlic  width  of  the 
wedge  at  this  point,  A  B,  Fig.  253, 
and  square  across.  On  the  under  sur- 
face, lay  off  the  width  of  the  wedge  at 
this  point,  C  D,  and  square  across. 

Gage  the  sides  of  the  wedge  hole  on  both  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  the  tenon.  After  cutting  the  mortise  and  tenon,  l)ore  and 
chisel  out  the  hole  for  the  wedge,  taking  care  to  cut  the  side  toward 
the  end  on  a  bevel  to  fit  the  wedge. 

No.  Jf-0.  A  tml-  tenon  or  shoulder  tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which 
the  tenon  proper  is  quite  thin  but  is  reinforced  by  a  thicker  shoulder 
called  a  "tusk."  The  upper  shoulder  is  beveled.  The  object  of  this 
form  is  to  weaken  the  mortised  member  as  little  as  possible  but  at 
the  same  time  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  tenon.  It  is  used  in 
joining  tail  beams  to  headers  in  floor  framing. 

No.  Jf.1.  A  double  mortise-and-tenon.  Fig.  267,  consists  of  two 
tenons  side  by  side  in  one  piece  fitting  into  two  corresponding  mor- 
tises.    It  is  used  in  joinery,  as  in  door-frames,  but  not  in  carpentry. 

No.  If2.  A  haunclied  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  made  by 
cutting  away  part  of  the  tenon  so  that  that  part  of  it  will  be  much 
shorter   than   the   rest.     The  haunch    o-ives   the   tenon   great   lateral 


,, 

f] 

1 

1 

A         6    _ 
C      •  P 

'J 

Fig-.   252.       Keyed    Mortise-and- 
Tenon  Joint. 


164  IIAXDWUUK   iX    WOOD. 

strene,'th  and  saves  cutting  so  large  a  mortise  hole.  It  is  used  in 
panel  construction,  as  where  the  rails  are  Joined  to  the  stiles  of  doors. 

First  i)!ow  the  groove  in  all  the  ineinl)ers.  This  should  be  of  the 
same  width  as  the  thickness  of  the  tenons,  which  is  ordinarily  one- 
third  of  the  thickness  of  the  frame.  The  groove  is  approximately  as 
deep  as  it  is  wide.  Lay  out  antl  cut  the  tenon  the  width  of  the  entire 
piece,  minus,  of  couise,  the  depth  of  the  groove.  The  mortise  should 
not  come  too  near  the  end.  or  the  ])ortion  of  wood  outside  it  will 
shear  out.  Hence  the  tenon  is  narrowed  on  the  outside  enough  to 
insure  stiength  in  tlu'  mortised  piece.  The  rule  is  tluit  the  tenon 
should  l)e  one-halt  the  width  of  the  I'ail.  minus  the  groove.  But 
enough  of  the  tenon  is  left  full  width  to  iill  up  the  groove  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  mortised  piece.  This  is  called  the  Jiaiuwh.  The 
width  of  the  mortise  is  equal  to  the  width  ot  the  groove,  its  length 
to  the  width  ot  the  tenon.  Before  asscnd)ling  the  panel  frame,  put 
soap  or  tallow  oii  the  corners  of  the  paiu'l  to  ])i'cvcnt  its  l)eing  glued 
to  the  frame. 

No.  J/-i.  Table  or  hi  per  ho  imr/i  i  in/ .  Fig.  "illT.  Sometimes,  as  in 
table  construction,  for  the  sake  of  stitfening  the  rail,  or  in  ])laces 
Avliere  it  is  desirable  that  the  haunch  does  not  show,  the  haunch  is  bev- 
eled from  the  tenon  to  the  edge  of  the  rail. 

Xo.  Jj.!/.  A  liori'-foeed  tenon.  Fig.  '^(iT,  is  one  in  which  a  cheek  is 
cut  from  only  one  side.  It  is  used  where  the  rail  is  thinner  than  the 
stile  and  it  is  desiralde  to  keep  the  mortise  near  the  niidd'e  of  the  stile. 

Xii.  'i'l.  .1  lionseil  ninrflse-onil-teni)n .  Fig.  "iliT,  is  one  in  which 
the  wlu)le  of  the  end  of  one  mend)er  is  let  in  foi-  a  short  distance  or 
"housed'"  into  the  other.      It  is  connuon  in  gi'ill  work  and  in  railings. 

Xo.  Jpi.  J  s/iii-jdlnl  or  I'lnl  or  o/ieii  nntrlise-iinil-tenon,  Fig.  26T, 
is  what  w(udd  remain  if  a  moilised  mend)er  were  sawn  ofp  along  one 
side  of  the  tenoned  memher.  W'inihnv  screens  and  other  light  frames 
such  as  those  for  slates  and  foi'  [trinting  ])hotographs  have  this  joint. 
This  joint  multiplied  is  used  for  small  machine-made  boxes,  and  is 
then  cal'eil  eoriier  hirlrimj. 

|)(»\i;ta]l  .loix'rs 

"Dovetail"  refi'rs  to  the  shape  of  the  pi'ojeetions  of  one  member, 
when  looked  at  bi'oadside.  These  |)idjeeiions  are  called  dovetails,  or 
mei'eiv  tails. 


THE    COMMOJf    JOINTS..  165 

The  projection^?  on  the  other  member  are  called  tenons  or  pins, 
and  the  spaces  between  both  tails  and  tenons  are  called  mortises  or 
sockets. 

No.  47.  A  fliru  siiKjlc  dovetail,  Fig.  2'6'^i,  is  similar  to  a  slip-joint 
except  that  instead  of  a  tenon  there  is  a  dovetail.  It  is  used  in  win- 
dow-sashes. 

No.  Jf-S.  A  thru  iimttiple  dovetail,  Fig.  2GT,  consists  of  a  series  of 
alternate  tails  and  tenons  which  fit  one  another  closely.  It  is  used 
in  tool-chests  and  in  other  strong  as  well  as  fine  boxes. 

To  make  a  thru  multiple  dovetail  joint,  first  S(|uare  lines  with  a 
sharp  pencil  around  the  ends  of  both  members  to  locate  the  inner  ends 
of  the  dovetail's  and  the  pins,  d  e  on  X,  Fig.  250,  and  1  m  on  Y. 
The  distance  of  this  line  from  the  ends  of  each  member  may,  if  de- 
sired, be  slightly  (1/32")  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  other 
member.  Divide  this  line,  d  e,  on  the  member  to  be  dovetailed,  X. 
into  as  many  equal  spaces  as  there  are  to  be  tails  (dovetails).  From 
the  division  points  of  these  spaces,  a  b  c,  to  the  right  and  left  lay  off' 
one-half  of  the  greatest  width  of  the  mortises  to  be  cut  out,  and  also 
the  same  distance  from  d  and  from  e,  as  at  f  f  f  f  and  g  g  g  g. 

The  strongest  arrangement  of  dovetai's  is  to  nuike  them  equal  in 
width  to  the  spaces  between  them,  as  in  Xo.  48,  p.  267.  For  the 
sake  of  appearance  they  may  be  as  much  as  four  times  as  wide  as 
the  spaces,  but  ordinarily  should  not  be  wider  than  1-34". 

Set  the  bevel-square  so  that  it  will  fit  the  angle  A  B  C,  Fig.  250, 
p.  159,  in  a  right  angle  triangle,  the  long  side  of  which  is  3"  and  the 
short  side  ^".  This  is  approximately  an  angle  of  80°  or  a  little 
more  than  one  to  five.  From  the  points  f  f  f  f  and  g  g  g  g  lay  off 
this  angle  to  the  end  of  the  piece.  Carry  these  lines  across  the  end 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  h  i.  Fig.  250,  and  repeat  the  dovetail 
angles  on  the  other  surface.  Mark  plainly  the  parts  to  be  cut  out 
(the  mortises),  as  on  X  in  Fig.  250.  Score  with  a  knife  point  the  in- 
ner ends  of  the  mortises,  d  to  f,  g  to  f,  etc.,  and  across  the  edge  at  d 
and  at  e.  With  a  dovetail-saw,  Fig.  93,  p.  G6,  cut  on  the  mortise 
side  of  each  line  down  to  the  cross  line,  d-e,  and  also  along  the  cross 
line  from  d  to  f  and  e  to  g.  Chisel  out  the  mortises  taking  care  to 
keep  the  line  d-e  straight  and  square.  The  ends  (not  the  sides)  of 
the  mortises  may  be  slightly  undercut  to  insure  a  tight  fit. 

Fasten  the  other  member,  Y,  upright  in  the  vise  so  that  the  end  to 
be  tenoned  will  bo  flush  with  the  top  of  the  bench,  and  with  the  work- 


166  HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 

ing  face  toward  the  bencli.  Place  on  it  the  working  face  of  X,  (the 
member  already  dovetailed,)  taking  care  that  the  inner  ends  of  the 
mortises  are  in  line  with  the  working  face  of  Y,  and  that  the  edges  of 
the  two  members  are  in  the  same  plane,  as  X  on  Y  in  Fig.  350.  Scribe 
witli  a  knife  point  along  the  sides  of  the  tails  on  the  end  of  Y'  (f'-j' 
and  g'-h').  Remove  Y  from  the  vise  and  square  down  these  lines  to 
the  cross  line  1-m  (j-n  and  h'-o).  Score  with  the  knife  point  the 
inner  ends  of  the  mortises  of  Y  (n-o).  Saw  with  a  dovetail-saw  on 
the  mortise  sides  of  these  lines,  chisel  out  the  mortises  and  fit  the 
parts  together.  When  glued  together,  the  joints  should  be  dressed  off. 
Where  there  are  several  parts  to  be  made  alike,  it  is  necessary  to  lay 
out  the  dovetails  on  only  one  X  member.  This  may  be  used  as  a 
templet  for  laying  out  the  others  and  they  can  then  be  sawn  sepa- 
rately. Or  all  the  X  members  may  be  clamped  carefully  together, 
with  one  X  already  laid  out,  rights  and  lefts  in  pairs,  and  edges  and 
ends  flush,  the  depth  nuirk  gaged  all  around,  and  then  all  sawn  at  once. 

The  dovetail  joint  is  also  made  by  first  laying  out  and  cutting  the 
members  having  the  pins,  and  tlien  su])erposing  this  on  the  piece  to 
be  dovetailed,  and  scribing  around  the  pins. 

Xo.  J/9.  A  lap  or  lidlf  l)Und  dovetail.  Fig.  267,  is  a  dovetail  joint 
in  which  the  tails  on  one  member  do  not  extend  entirely  thru  the 
thickness  of  the  other  member.  It  is  used  in  joining  the  sides  to  the 
fronts  of  drawers  and  other  fittings  where  only  one  side  is  seen. 

If  the  joint  is  to  be  used  for  a  drawer  front,  the  groove  for  the 
drawer  bottom  should  be  cut  or  at  least  laid  out  before  laying  out  the 
joint.  See  also  drawers,  p.  190,  and  Fig.  287,  p.  191.  On  the 
end  of  the  drawer  front,  gage  the  depth  of  the  joint.  C4age  the  same 
distance  on  both  broad  surfaces  of  the  drawer  sides,  marking  from  the 
front  ends.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  dovetails  as  in  a  thru  dovetail  joint, 
taking  especial  care  to  have  the  groove  for  the  bottom  completely 
within  the.  lower  tail.  Take  care  also  to  make  the  sides,  one  right 
and  one  left,  not  both  alike,  so  that  the  groove  will  come  inside.  Lay 
out  the  drawer  front  by  superposing  the  dovetailed  side.  X,  on  the 
end  of  the  front,  Y,  as  in  a  thru  dovetail.  Saw  and  chisel  out  the 
mortises  and  fit  together. 

No.  50.  A  stopped  lap  dovetail.  Fig.  3()7,  is  one  in  which  neither 
the  tails  nor  the  pins  extend  thru  the  other  members.  Hence  the 
joint  is  concealed.  The  lap  nuiy  be  rounded.  It  is  used  in  fine 
boxes,  trays,  etc. 


THK    CO:\niON    JOINTS. 


le'; 


No.  ol.  TJie  blind  miter  or  -secret  doveiail.  Fig.  267,  is  a  joint 
in  which  only  part,  say  one-half,  of  both  boards  is  dovetailed,  the 
outer  portion  being  initered.  The  edges  of  the  boards  are  also  mitered 
right  thru  for  a  short  distance  so  that  when  finished  the  dovetails  are 
invisible.     It  is  used  in  highly  finished  boxes. 


BEVELED  JOINTS 


A  beveled  joint  is  made  by  beveling  the  members  so  that  the  plane 
of  the  joint  bisects  the  angle  at  which  the  members  meet.     This  is 

called  the  "miter"  and  may  be 


45  degrees  or  any  other  angle. 
It  is  a  neat  but  weak  joint 
unless  reinforced  by  a  spline, 
nails,  or  in  some  other  way. 

No.  f)i2.  A  plain  miter. 
Fig.  268,  is  a  joint  where  the 
beveled  edges  or  ends  abut  and 
are  simply  glued  or  nailed  to- 
gether. It  is  commonly  used 
in  picture-frames,  inside  trim, 
columns,  boxes,  and  taborets,  four  or  more  sided. 

For  gluing  mitered  frames,  the  most  convenient  way  is  with  the 
aid  of  the  picture-frame-vise,  Fig.  172,  p.  101.  Nails  are  driven  oi 
splines  inserted  as  soon  as  each  joint  is  glued.  Where  this  vise  is 
not  available,  an  ordinary  metalworking  vise  may  be  used,  as  follows : 
Fasten  one  member,  X,  face  side  up,  firmly  in  the  vise.     Bore  holes 


Fig-.  253.     Gluing-  Tog-ether 
a  Picture-Frame      (See also  Fig.  254. 


Fig-.  254.     Picture-Frame-CIamp. 


16H 


IIANDAVUI.'K    IX    WOOD. 


in  tJie  other  iiiciiilici'.  V.  at  the  pioper  places  for  the  nails.  Insert 
nails  in  the  hoh-s.  api»ly  the  glue  to  l)oth  niitered  surfaces,  place  the 
glued  surfaces  together,  letting  Y  project  ahout  1/8"  beyond  X.  A 
conrenient  way  to  hold  V  in  ]dace  is  in  the  left  hand,  palm  up,  whik 


Fig.  255.    Picture-Frame-Clamp.    (See  also  Fig-.  254.) 

the  left  forearm  rests  upon  X.  Drive  one  of  the  nails  home,  and 
continue  driving  until  the  parts  exactly  fit.  Then  drive  home  the 
other  nail.  Now  fasten  together  in  the  same  way  the  other  two  mem 
hers  of  tlie  picture-frame,  and  then,  one  at  a  time,  the  third  and 
foiiith  jnitit.  This  is  the  method  used  in  ])icture-frame  factories, 
and   when  oiicc   IcariU'd    is  very  sinijile. 

Foi-  gluing  togetiu'r  at  once  all  the  nu'inhers  of  a  mitered  frame. 
the  de\  ice  shown  in  Fig.  253  is  convenient  and  is  easily  made. 
Out    of   two   pieces    of   wood  somewhat    longer   than    the   two    end 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


169 


pieces  of  the  frame,  gains  are  cut  of  the  exact  length  of  tlie  ends,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration.  By  applying  two  c'.anips  lengthwise  on 
the  frame,  all  four  Joints  nuiy  he  glued  together  at  once.  If  the 
frame  does  not  come  u])  square,  it  may  l)e  s(|uare(l  hy  means  of  a 
temporary  brace,  A,  in  Fig.  253. 

The  device  shown  in  Figs.  254  and  255,  is  also  an  easily  nuide  and 
efficient  tool.  At  least  the  small  jiieces,  which  receive  the  corners  of 
the  frame,  should  be  made  of  hard  wood  such  as  maple.  It  is  self- 
adjusting  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  buckle  the  parts  of  a  narrow 
frame  by  over  pressure.  It  is  well  to  soap  or  oil  the  corner  pieces  to 
prevent  their  being  glued  to  the  frame. 

In  sfluino-  together  long  mitered  joints,  in  six  or  eight  sided  tab- 
orets  or  columns,  in  which  the  members  meet  edgewise,  one  method  is 
to  wrap  a  few  turns  of  bale  wire  around  the  parts  and  drive  in 
wedges  under  the  wire  to  obtain  pressure,  Fig.  256.  Another  method 
is  to  wrap  a  stout  rope,  such 
as  is  used  for  window  weights, 
around  all  the  pieces,  properly 
set  up,  then  to  tighten  it  by 
twisting  it  w^ith  a  stick  thru 
a  loop.  Fig.  257.  A  still  more 
effective  way  is  by  means  of 
the  Xoxall  Column  Clamp,  a 
powerful  device,  used  chiefly 
for  gluing  up  such  pieces  as  the 
pillar  of  a  centrally  supported 
table.  Fig.  259.  Care  must  be 
taken  with  all  these  devices  to 
protect  the  corners,  unless  they 
are  to  be  rounded  off  afterward. 
A  good  way  to  protect  them  is 
with  })ieces  fastened  together  in 
the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  258,  h. 
and  Fig.  257,  the  interior  an- 
gle being  equal  to  the  exterior 
ang'e  of  the  piece  to  be  glued. 
In   the   case   of   a   taboret   with 

slender  legs,  care  must  he  taken  to  insert  blocks  between  the  separate 
legs  as  well,  to  brace  them  apart  and  to  keep  them  from  l)ending  un- 


Fig.  2S6.     Gluiiifr  up  a  Column  Joint. 
(Pinch-Doys  at  Top  of  Joints.) 


170 


IIANDWUUK    IX    WOOD. 


der  the  pressure.  These  luethoils  li;ne  the  a(l\anta,i;e  that  they  are 
speedy,  sinet'  all  the  pieees  go  togethei'  at  oiu'e:  hut  uidess  the  pieces 
fit  exactly  the  joints  will  not  close. 

Another  nietliod  is  to  glue  and  elani|)  the  pieees  of  the  tal)Oi'et  to^ 
getliev  two  hy  two,  using  Idoeks  as  shown  in  Fig.  "258,  a.  Cai'e 
slionld  he  taken  to  put  the  pressnre  of  the  handserews  as  far  out  as 
possihle  so  as  to  he  sure  that  the  outside  of  the  joint  closes.  This 
method  has  the  advantage  that,  as  only  one  joint  is  glued  at  a  time, 
the  woi'k  can  he  done  nioie  deliherately.  Moi'i'over,  if  when  three 
pairs  of  a  six-sided  tahoiet  aie  togethei',  the  othei-  three  joints  do  not 
fit  exactly,  th.ey  can  then  he  i'etitt(,'(l. 

x\nother  method  is  to  glue  pieces  ot  soft  wood  on  the  exterioi-  of 
each  pieces  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.-)S.  r.     These  hlorks  should  he  of  such 
shape  that  the  opposite  sides  of  each    pair  are  parallel.     When  the 
glue  is  dry.  they  are  used  as  comu'rs  on   wliit-h   to  clamp  the  hand- 
sel ews.      This    luethod    has    the 
(lisad\antage     that     the     hlocks 
may    hreak    loose    at    a    critical 
uioMient. 

in  addition  to  any  of  these 
methods  of  tightening  the 
joints,  to  luake  sure  that  the 
vWiU  of  the  joints  close  tight, 
|iiiu-li-dogs,  h'ig.  178,  p.  103, 
luay  he  driven  into  the  end 
grain,  and  corrugated  fasten- 
ers. Fig.  228,  p.  125,  also  driven 
into  the  ends,  make  the  joint 
(|uite  Secure. 

No.   5-3.     A    doweled   miter. 
I''ig.   2()8,   is  one   in  which   (UU' 
or  luoi'e  dowels  are  inserted  and 
glued    into  liole-   l)(U"ed   into  the 
heveled  edges.  It  uuiy  he  used  instead  of  nails,  as  in  large  picture  frauu's. 
X(i.  ■').'/.     A   splnii'  (ir  loiKjiir  niili'r.   I'"ig.   2tiS.   is  (Uie  which   has  a 
spline  oi-  tongue  inserted  at   light   angles  to  the  joint.     Since  it   fur- 
nishes more  gluing  surface,  it   is  stronger  than  a  plain  miter. 

Xo.  .')■').  .1  s/i p-friil In  r  or  sli/i-lmi  iiiilrr.  i'"ig.  2(iS,  is  one  which 
is  strengthened  hy  a  slip  (d'  hardwood  glued  into  a  saw  keif  cut  across 
the  miteied  an^'le.      It   is  used   in   nicl  ure-frauies  and  in  hoxcs. 


Fig.    257.       Oiu-    Method    of   (iluing'     up   a 
Six-Sided  Taboret 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


171 


iVo.  56.  A  slip-dovetail  miter.  Fig.  268,  is  one  in  which  a  trape- 
zoidal shaped  key  is  inserted  in  a  dovetail  socket  cut  straight 
across  the  miter.  When  dressed 
otf,  it  gives  the  appearance  of 
a  dovetail  on  each  face.  It  is 
used  for  the  same  purpose  as  a 
spline  miter. 

No.  57.    A  double  dovetail 
l-eyed  miter.  Fig.  268,  is  one 

.     '     1-1  T       11       1         J.    -1    1  Fig-.  258.     Devices  for  t^luiiiff  Beveled  Edges 

m  Avhich  a  double  dovetail  key 

made  of  hard  wood  is  inlaid  across  the  Joint.    This  is  a  favorite  joint 

with  Oriental  joiners. 

No.  5S.  A  ledge  and  miter  or  lipped  miter  joint,  Fig.  268,  is 
made  hy  rabbeting  and  raitering  the  boards  to  be  joined  so  that  the 

outer  portion  of  the  two  boards  meet  in  a 
uiiter.  It  is  strong  and  good  looking  and 
may  be  glued  or  nailed.  It  is  used  for 
tine  boxes. 

No.  59.  A  stopped  miter,  Fig.  268, 
is  useful  for  joining  pieces  of  different 
widths,  when  both  sides  can  be  seen. 

No.   00.     A   double-tongue   miter,   Fig. 
268,  is  made  by  cutting  on  the  adjoining 
edges  tongues  which  engage  in  each  other. 
It  is  nsed  in  high  class  joinery,  on  mem- 
bers that  join  lengthwise  of  the  grain. 

No.  61.  A  stretcher  joint,  Fig.  268,  is  a  slip  joint  in  which  one 
or  both  sides  is  mitered.  It  is  nsed  in  frames  for  stretching  canvass 
for  paintings  Ijy  driving  wedges  from  the  inside.  Two  forms  are 
shown  in  61a  and  61b. 

No.  62.  A  strut  joint.  Fig.  268,  is  a  form  of  miter  joint  used  in 
making  trusses. 

No.  63  and  64-  A  thrust  joint  or  tie  joint  or  toe  joint,  Fig.  268, 
is  one  in  which  two  l)eams  meet  at  an  oblique  angle,  one  receiving  the 
thrust  of  the  other.  Tlie  toe  may  be  either  square  as  in  63,  or  oblique 
as  in  61.  The  pieces  are  bolted  or  strapped  together  with  iron.  It 
is  used  for  the  batter  braces  of  bridges. 

No.  65.  A  plain  brace  joint.  Fig.  269,  is  one  in  which  the  brace 
is  simply  mitered  and  naiU'd  into  place.  It  is  nsed  for  bracket 
supports. 


Fig-.  254.     Columii-Clanip. 


172  HAXDWORK   IX   WOOD. 

Ko.  00.  A  lioitscd  brave  joiiil.  Fig.  ">?()!»,  is  a  joint  in  wiiieli  the 
brace  is  honsed  into  the  reetaniiular  nienibers  except  that  the  outer 
end  of  the  mortise  is  cut  at  right  angles  and  the  inner  end  diag- 
onally to  receive  the  brace  Mdiicli  is  cut  to  correspond.  It  is  much 
stronger  than  05. 

No.  07.  All  ohiiqur  niortise-and-tcnoii  or  hevel-skoulder  joint. 
Fig.  269,  is  one  in  Avhich  the  shoulders  of  the  tenoned  beam  aie  cut 
obliquely  and  its  end  is  cut  off  at  right  angles.  The  cheeks  of  the 
mortise  are  correspondingly  sunk.  By  these  means  the  tenon  pre- 
vents lateral  motion  while  the  whole  width  of  the  beam  presses  against 
tlie  abutment.  Thus  a  much  largei'  hearing  surface  is  ()l)taineil.  The 
whole  is  bolted  or  strapped  together.     It  is  used  in  heavy  truss  work. 

No.  OS.  A  hrii/lr  joint.  Fig.  'iC)\),  is  an  oblique  joint  in  wliicli  a 
bridle  or  "tdnguc"  is  left  in  an  ol)li(|ue  notch  cut  out  ol'  one  beam 
Over  this  tongue  is  fitted  a  grooved  socket  cut  oldicpiely  in  the  other 
beam.     ]t  is  used  in  truss  construction. 

No.  00.  A  hirtl's  iiioiifli  joint.  Fig.  "iC)!),  is  an  angular  notch  cut 
in  a  tind)er  to  allow  it  to  fit  snugly  over  the  mendier  on  which  it 
I'ests.     It  is  used  in  rafters  where  they  lit  over  tln'  ])'att'. 

j\o.  70.  A  jilnin  or  rnhhnj  or  s(iu('i".i'il  or  ;/hic  joint.  Fig.  3(>9,  is 
one  in  which  the  edges  of  two  l)oards  are  glued  and  rubl)ed  together 
tight.     It  is  used  in  table-tops,  drawing-boards,  etc. 

To  make  tbis  joint,  first  the  boards  are  all  laid  down  flat,  side  by 
side,  and  arranged  in  the  jirojier  order.  Three  considerations  deter- 
mine what  this  order  is  to  be:  (f  ),  if  llie  grain  is  of  prime  import- 
ance, as  in  quartered  oak.  then  the  boards  are  arranged  so  as  to  give 
the  best  appearance  of  the  grain.  ('J),  if  possible,  the  boards  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  warping  of  each  board  shall  counteract  that 
of  the  adjac-ent  oiu's.  For  this  purpose  the  boards  are  so  laid  that 
the  annual  rings  of  one  shall  alternate  in  direetion  with  the  annual 
rings  of  the  next,  Fig.  *280,  a,  p.  188.  (;;),  if  possible,  tlie  boards 
should  be  so  arranged  that  after  being  glued  together  they  can  a'l  be 
])laned  smootli  in  tlie  same  dii'ection.  Wlu'U  the  aI)ove  requirements 
have  been  met  so  I'ai-  as  jtossibU'.  this  oi'der  should  be  mai'ked  on  ad- 
joining edges  for  later  identilieation.  The  edges  of  the  boards  to  be 
joined  should  he  linislied  with  a  jointei'. 

Thei'e  ai'e  two  |iiMiiei|»al  iiielliods  ot  gluing  edge-to-edge  joints, 
rubbing  and  s(juee/jng.  in  a  ruMied  joint,  llii'  surfaces  to  be  joined 
slundd  be  |i'aned  so  as  lo  meet  tlii'U(Uit  exactly.     After  ])ro])erlv  ))lan- 


THE    COMMON"    JOINTS. 


178 


Fijr.  260.     Applying- 
Glue  for  an  Edge-to-Edtre  Joint. 


ing  one  edge  of  each  board,  keep  one  board  iu  the  vise,  jointed  edge 
up,  and  place  its  to-be  neighbor  in  position  upon  it.    Then  use  these 
four  tests  for  an  exact  fit.      (1)    Sight  down  the  end  to  see  that  the 
faces    lie    in    the    same    plane. 
(3)    Examine    the   crack    froui 
both  sides.     Be  sure   that  both 
ends  touch.     Test  this  by  pu  1- 
ing    down    hard     on     one     end 
of  the  upper  board  and  noticing 
if  the  other  end  is  still  in  con- 
tact.     If  the  other    end    opens, 
swing    the    upper    board    hori- 
zontally on  the  lower  board    to 
see  where  the  high  place  is  and 
then    correct    it.       (3)     S.ee    if 

the  upper  board  stands  firmly  on  the  lower  board  l)y  feeling  gently 
to  see  if  it  rocks,  or  by  rapping  lightly  the  lower  board,  (-i)  Slide 
the  top  board  slowly  on  the  lower  one  to  feel  if  it  adheres  or  ''sucks."" 
After  the  pieces  have  been  warmed,  which  should  be  done  if  pos- 
sible, the  glue  is  spread    on  them,  Fig.  260,  and  they  are  then  rubbed 

slowly  back  and  forth  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain,  pres- 
sure being  applied  by  the  hand 
and  care  being  taken  not  to 
open  the  Joint  in  tbe  least. 
As  the  glue  sets,  the  rubbing 
becomes  more  difficult.  It 
should  be  stopped  when  the 
boards  are  in  their  proper 
relative  positions.  In  rub- 
bing together  the  edges  of 
two  boards,  handscrews  may 
be  fastened  to  one  in  such  a 
a  way  that  their  jaws  serve 
as  guides  for  the  other  board 
to  slide  between,  Fig.  361.  Care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  jaws  of 
the  handscrew  diverge  enough  not  to  pinch  the  upper  board. 

Another  method  is  to  clamp  a  spare  board  alongside  and  project- 
ing above  the  lower  board.     This  spare  hoard  acts  as  a  guide  against 


Fig-.  2bl. 
Rubbiiiff  a  Glued  Joint. 


174 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


which  the  upper  board  can  be  pushed  as  it  is  rubbed  back  and  forth. 
The  rubbed  joint  is  especially  suitable  for  short  boards. 

In  joining  long  boards,  a  squeezed  joint  is  common.  In  this  case, 
the  edges  are  planed  so  as  to  be  very  slightly  concave  from  end  to  end. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  counteract  the  subsequent  shrinkage  which  is 
likely  to  take  place  at  the  ends  of  the  boards  before  it  does  at  the 
middle.  The  pressure  of  the  clamps  may  be  depended  upon  to  close 
up  the  middle,  and,  especially  if  dowels  are  inserted,  as  in  No.  75,  the 
joint  will  bo  strong  enough  to  resist  the  elasticity  of  the  boards. 

^Ahen  tbe  fit  is  good,  warm  the  wood  if  possible,  prepare  the 
clamps,  put  a  thin  film  of  glue  over  both  edges  which  are  to  be  to- 
gether, apply  the  clamps  rapidly,  keeping  the  faces  flush,  and  set 
away  to  dry  for  at  least  six  hours.  Then  another  piece  may  be  added 
in  the  same  manner.  If  the  boards  are  thin  and  wide,  and  therefore 
likely  to  buckle,  they  may  first  be  handscrewed  to  cross-strips  to  pre- 
vent their  buckling.  The  cross-strips  are,  of  course,  slightly  shorter 
than  the  combined  width  of  the  boards  so  that  the  full  pressure  of 
the  clamps  may  come  on  the  glued  joint. 

No.  71.    A  rebated,  rabbeted  or  filUstered  joint,  Fig.  269.    Rebat- 
ing is  the  cutting  of  a  rectangular  slip  out  of  the  side  of  a  piece  of 
wood.     The  re-entering  angle  left  upon  the  wood  is  called  the  rebate 
or  rabl)et.     A  rel)atc(l  joint,  then,  is  one  in  which  corresponding  re- 
bates are  taken  off  edges  so  that 
the  joined  boards    may  overlap. 
It  is  used  in  flooring    and    sid- 
ing. 

A  lioard  is  rebated  and  fil- 
leted when  two  adjoining  re- 
bates are  filled  with  a  fillet. 

No.  72.  A  matched  or 
tougac-aiid-groove  joint.  Fig. 
'3(")ii.  is  made  by  making  a  pro- 
jection or  "tongue"  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  edge  of  one  board, 
and  a  corresponding  groove  in  the  center  of  the  other  so  that  they 
will  match  togetluM-.  When  used  for  flooring,  the  lower  side  of  the 
grooved  ttoai'd  is  sliglilly  r('l)ated  so  that  the  upper  edges  will  surely 
toiii'h.     This  s(H-t  of  lloorins-  can  he  blind-nailed. 


-M^ 

^ 

fL-<^ 

s^^^ 

y 

^ 

/^ 

p^; 

^ 

// 

^^^ 

/ 

— ' 

Fig.  2<)2.     PM^re-to-Kdg-e  Joint,  Doweled. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


175 


No.  73.  A  headed  joint.  Fig.  269,  is  similar  to  a  matched  joint 
except  that  a  bead  is  worked  on  one  edge  to  disguise  the  joint  for 
decorative  purposes. 

iYo.  74.  A  spline-joint.  Fig.  269,  is  made  by  plowing  correspond- 
ing grooves  in  the  edges  to  be  joined  and  inserting  a  spline  or  slip- 
feather.     It  is  used  in  plank  flooring. 

No.  7-5.  A  doweled  joint.  Fig.  269,  is  made  by  jointing  the  two 
edges  carefully,  boring  holes  opposite  each  other  and  inserting  dowel 
pins  when  the  two  edges  are  glued  together.  It  is  used  in  table 
tops,  etc. 

Where  the  boards  are  thick  enough  to  allow  it,  a  squeezed  joint 
is  greatly  strengthened  by  the  insertion  of  dowels. 

The  essential  point  in  inserting  dowels  is  to  have  the  holes  for 
them  directly  opposite  one  another  and  at  right  angles  to  the  surface. 
The  following  is  a  convenient  method 
where  boards  are  to  be  joined  edge  to 
edge,  Fig.  262.  Place  the  two  boards 
back  to  back  in  the  vise  with  the  edges 
and  ends  flush.  Determine  approxi- 
mately where  the  dowels  are  to  be  in- 
serted. With  the  gage,  mark  short  lines 
at  the  points  of  insertion  in  the  center 
of  each  edge,  gaging  from  the  outside 
faces.  Across  these  lines  score  accu- 
rately with  a  try-square  and  knife. 
Then  bore  the  holes  with  a  dowel-bit  at 
the  intersection  of  the  lines.  Fig.  263. 
If  this  is  carefully  done,  the  holes  will 
be  directly  opposite  one  another,  and 
equidistant  from  the  faces  of  both 
boards.  All  the  holes  should  be  of 
equal  depth,  say  1",  in  order  that  the 
dowel-pins,  which  should  also  be  cut  of 

equal  lengths,  may  be  interchangeable.  After  boring,  the  holes  may 
be  slightly  countersunk  in  order  to  insure  a  tight  joint  and  the  easy 
slipping  of  the  pins  into  place.  The  latter  result  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  slightly  pointing  the  pins  with  a  dowel -pointer,  Fig.  123, 
p.  83.     It  is  also  a  wise  precaution  to  cut  a  small  groove  along  the 


Fig.  263.     Borine  for  Dowels  in 
an  Edge-to-Ed^e  Joint. 


17(i  HANDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 

length  of  the  pin  to  allow  superfluous  glue  to  escape  from  the  hole. 
The  dowel  should  be  dipped  in  glue  and  inserted  when  the  glue  is 

iip})]ied  to  the  joint. 


THE    COMMOX   .JOINTS 
ReB'EREXCES  :  * 

Rivington,    Vol.   I.   pp.  57-77,                Barter,    pp.    211-27.5. 

135-137,      238-242:  Vol. 

II,   pp.    291-295.  Scldfii.    \>]>.    50-130. 

Adams,   pp.   1-30.  Biiiltliii<i  Trades  Pockcthnok,  pp.  21' 

Sickels,  pp.   86-124.  221.   237. 

Goss,  pp.  128-152.  Griliith,    jip.    8(5-104,    1(;4-170. 
Ellis.  1,),.    135-151. 


I'or  lifiiera]   liiblio^rapliy.  soe  p.  4 


THE    CO:ilM.ON    JOINTS. 


^=r- 


-^ 

/    Lapped  and  ^Trapped 


y 


177 


2    ruhec. 


3    Fished    and    Keyed 


5    b pi  iced     for     tension 


S. ^ ^k_ 


4-    Spliced     for     compression 


\rE 


^ 


6    spliced     and     tabba 


7    Spliced     for   cross    sl'ra/n 


9     ~(c)c- nailed 


,^P^ 


c^ 


6     Doweled    butt 


10     Draw-boir 


^^^*^ 

—' 

~y^ 

:     -  '^ 

\   ; 


//    Plain  butt 


1Z    Olu'ed  and    blochcd 


Lroo'o  lap 


Fig.  2()4. 


178 


HAXDWORK   IX    WOOD. 


Fiy.  2ii5. 


THE  co:m:mon  joints. 


179 


14    Rabbet 


X 


-Y 


Z5     Dado 


Y  — 


19     Gam  ^q  ^j-^^  morTi:>c  ma  lenan 


Z8    P  overall    dado 


36  ,  fox  Tail  tenon 


Dovetail    moTri:>e  and  tenon 
Fig-.  266. 


180 


II A KD WORK   IX    WOOD. 


Bare  faced  knon       tlouxci    morTi ie  and  renon         46  5lip  Thm   iingle   dovetail 


thru    muttipic     dovetail 


Lap  dovetail  blcppca  lap  dovetail       J)/    Blind    dovetail 

V\M.  2i)7. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


181 


J2 


V 


^iip  feather  mitcT 


^lip  aoveTail  miler  Double   aovelail    Keyed      Ledge    and    md'er 


63    5quarc    Thruil 


64     OMique   ThruH 


182 


HAXDWORK   I]sr    WOOD. 


7i    beaded 


~l    nalched 


74    5plme 


Fijr.  2()'». 


TJ     Uowelcd 


Chapter  VIII. 

TYPES  OF  WOODEX  STRUCTUEES. 

The  articles  suitable  to  be  made  in  wood  with  hand  tools  may  for 
convenience  be  divided  into  four  general  classes:  (1)  Unjoined 
pieces;  (2)  board  structures;  (3)  panel  structures;  (4)  framed 
structures.     A  few  illustrations  of  each  class  are  given  below. 

(1)    SIMPLE    OR    UNJOINED    PIECES 

Of  these  there  are  a  number  that  are  advantageous  for  the  learn- 
ing of  tool  processes;  at  the  same  time  they  give  opportunity  for 
expression  in  design,  and  wdien  finished  are  of  use. 

Examples  are:  key-boards,  chiseling-boards,  bread-boards,  sleeve- 
boards,  ironing-boards,  coat-  and  skirt-hangers,  and  gouged  trays. 
Some  of  these  are  so  simple  as  to  include  hardly  any  process  but 
planing,  directions  for  which  are  given  above,  p.  72. 

Where  there  is  more 
than  one  process  involved, 
the  order  of  procedure  is 
of  importance.  In  gen- 
eral, a  safe  rule  to  follow 
in  each  case  is  to  plane  up 
the  piece  true  and  square, 
or,  in  technical  language, 
to  '"true"  it  up.  At  least 
as  many  of  its  surfaces 
should  be  trued  as  are  necessary  for  the  "lay  out."  Where  the  piece 
is  to  be  rectangular  all  the  surfaces  should  be  true;  where  some  of 
the  surfaces  are  to  be  curved  it  is  unnecessary  and  a  waste  of  time 
to  square  them  first.  For  example,  in  making  a  gouged  tray  with 
curved  outline.  Fig.  270,  the  working  face,  the  working  edge,  and 
the  thickness  should  all  be  true  before  the  plan  is  laid  out.  Then, 
after  the  outline  is  drawn,  the  trough  may  be  gouged,  the  outline  cut 
with  turning-saw,  chisel,  and  spokeshave,  and  the  edges  molded  with 
the  gouge  or  chisel.     If  there  is  incised  decoration  it  should  be  cut 

183 


Pen-Tray. 


184 


IIANDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 


Chamfe 

/  ^ 

r 

Bci/c/ 

Fifr.  271.     Difference  Between 
Chamfer  and  Bevel. 


before  ilie  molding  is  cut,  so  tliat  while  being  incised,  the  piece  Avih 
lie  flat  without  tipping. 

Those  simple  pieces,  as  well  as  others,  are  often  embellished  by 
cludiifcring.  A  chamfer  is  a  surface 
produced  by  cutting  away  an  ai'ris.  It 
differs  fi'om  a  tievel  in  that  a  bevel  in- 
clines all  the  way  to  the  next  arris, 
while  a  chamfei'  makes  a  new  arris, 
Fig.  371.  A  thru  chamfer  extends  tli<' 
whole  length  or  width  of  a  piece,  while 
a  stop  chamfer  extends  only  part  way. 
Vov  file  laying  out  of  a  chamfer  see 
p.  115. 

Til  III  chamfering  is  best  done  with  a  |>lane.  Fig.  2T2.  For  this 
|nii|)()se  ihe  piece  may  l)e  held  in  the  bench-vise  and  the  plane  tipped 
hi  the  proper  angle,  or  the  piece  may  be  held  in  a  handscrew  which 
in  tiiin  is  hcM  in  the  vise  as  in  Fig.  175.  p.  1()3.  The  chamfers  with 
ihe  grain  should  be  ])hincd  before  tliose  across  the  grain. 

In  chamferiug  a  four-s(puire  stick  into  an  eighi-sipiare,  ihe  piece 
may  be  gripped  in  the  vise  diagonally.  I^'ig.  373,  or  il  nia\-  be  held  in 
a  trough  made  of  iwo  siri])s  nl'  wood  from  cadi  of  which  an  arris  has 

lieen  chamfered  and  then  the 
two  nailed  together.  Fig.  374. 
A  dowel  or  nail  may  l)e  in- 
serted in  the  trough  for  a  stop. 
S.top  chamfers  are  pared  best 
with  a  chisel.  Fig.  375.  held 
accoiding  to  c(Uivenience  eilber 
llat  side  or  bevel  side  U|).  See 
under  chisel,  p.  5.3. 


(3)    lioAiji)  s'ri;i'("nTRi>:s. 


Fipr.  272.     Tliru  Chamfering-. 


These  include  such  pieces 
as  wall  brackeis,  sets  of  shelves, 
book-racks,  plate-racks,  di'awing-boar<ls.  fooi-slools.  taborets,  and  boxe^. 
The  advantage  of  Ibis  foim  of  construction  is  thai  it  is  compara- 
tively easy  to  make;  the  disadvantage  is  that  if  the  boards  are  wide, 
they  are  sure  to  shrink  and  swell.  It  is  wise  in  all  such  work  to  trug 
and  smooth  up  all  the  pieces  at  once,  and  if  the  wood  is  not  thoroly 


TYPES  OF   A^'OODEN   STRUCTURES. 


185 


Fig-.  273. 

Piece  Held   in  Vise 

to  Chamfer. 


seasoned,  to  keep  the  boards  under  jjressure  till  they  are  assembled. 
In  the  case  of  several  boards  to  be  jointed  into  one  piece,  they  should 
be    glued    together    before    the    surfaces    are 
smoothed.      Suggestions  regarding   a   few   typ- 
ical pieces  follow : 

Wall  Brackets.  (1)  There  are  three  essen- 
tial parts,  the  shelf,  the  support  or  supports, 
and  the  back:  tlic  shelf  to  hold  the  articles, 
the  support  to  hold  up  the  shelf,  and  the  back 
to  hold  all  together,  Fig.  276,  a.    The  grain  of 

the  Avood  in  the  shelf  should  iim  left  and  right,  not  forwaid  and  back, 
because  thus  it  rests  on  the  support  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  break 

easily,  and  it  also  acts  as  a  stiffener  for 
the  back.  In  case  the  back  extends  above 
the  shelf,  as  in  Fig.  276,  a,  the  shelf  can 
be  secured  firmly  to  the  back,  since  there 
is  side  grain  in  which  to  drive  nails  or 
sci'ews.  As  to  the  direction  of  the  grain 
of  the  support  and  the  hack,  this  should 
1  un  in  the  direction  of  the  largest  di- 
mension of  each.  Wheie  the  back  is 
'ong  horizontally,  for  security  in  hang- 
ing, it  is  better  to  have  two  supports.""* 
^Yall  hook-sUelves,  Fig.  277,  pJate-racls,  etc.,  are  simply  com- 
pound brackets.  The  shelf  is  the  essential  piece,  the  sides  take  the 
place  of  the  supports,  and  the 
back  is  often  reduced  to  strips 
merely  wide  enough  to  giv 
rigidity. 

The  shelves  may  he  cithci- 
gaini'd  into  the  supports.  Fig. 
266,  Xo.  28  or  Xo.  2!),  p.  170, 
or  a  keyed  luoi'tiso-and-tenou 
may  ho  used,  Fiy-.  277.  Tn  tlu' 
latter  case  the  liack  strip  nun 
have  a  short  barefaced  Idind 
tenon    which    is    mortised    into  Fig-.  27s.   stop  chamfering. 


Fig.  274.    Trough  for  PI  anin< 
Chamfers. 


"  See  the  School   Arts  Book  for  Nov..   190G,  "Design  in  the  Woodworldng 
Class."  bv  Anna  and  William  Noves. 


1H6 


HANDWOUK   IX    WOOD. 


Fi«-.  27t).     Wall  Brackets,  Uouble-Huiig-: 
a.  Sitiirle  Support.     /'.  Double  Support. 


the  upright,  Fig.  2?8.  It  also  fits  into  a  rabbet  on  the  upper  back 
side  of  the  shelf.  Made  in  this  way  the  shelves  can  be  knocked  down 
easil}'. 

Foot  Stool  or  Cricket,  Fig. 
^79.  The  grain  of  the  supports 
should  run  up  and  down,  be- 
cause pieces  with  the  grain  hor- 
izontal would  be  likely  to  break 
tmdor  pressure.  Braces  or  a 
rail  give  additional  support. 
The  to})  shoukl  not  be  larger 
than  the  base  of  the  legs;  oth- 
erwise a  person  standing  care- 
lessly on  the  stool  is  in  danger 
of  being  upset. 

A  Draw  in  [/-Board  is  made 
up  of  narrow  boards,  with  glued 
joints,  with  the  boards  so  laid 
that  the  annual  rings  will  al- 
ternate in  direction.  Fig.  280,  a.  It  must  be  made  so  that  it  can 
shrink  and  swell  and  yet  remain  flat.  For  tlie  luupose  of  giving 
lateral  stiffness  cleats  are  added.  They  may  siiiii>]y  lie  screwed  on 
the  underside,  tlie  screw  holes  being  large  enough  to  ;\\\o\\'  for  shrink- 
age, or  they  may  be  dadoed  in 
with  a  (lo\('tail  dado.  Fig.  280, 
h.  or  they  may  be  grooved  to 
a(hnit  a  tongue  on  the  end  of 
a  hoard.  Fig.  280,  r.  In  this 
case  screws  passing  thru  large 
holes  in  the  cleats  hold  them 
in   ])lace. 

Tahorcls.  The  term  taboret 
orig-inally  meant  a  little  tabor 
or  drum,  and  was  therefore 
used  to  designate  a  small  stool, 
the  seat  of  which  consisted  of 
n  piece  of  stretched  leather. 
The  term  now  includes  small,  tablelike  strictures  for  holding  flower- 
pots, vases,  etc.     It  might  more  properly  be  called  a  ''table-ette." 


Fiy. 


Wall  Book-Case. 


TYPES  OF  AVOODEN"  STRUCTURES. 


187 


When  made  up  with  boards  having  their  long  edges  mitered,  it 
has  from  four  to  eight  sides.  A  six-sided  one  is  shown  in  Fig.  281. 
In  making,  it  is  best  to  fit  the  joints  exactly  first,  while  the  board  is 

stiff,  and  then  to  cut 
out  the  pattern  of  the 
legs.  Directions  for  glu- 
ing are  given  on  p.  169. 
i^rrap-boxes,  Fig.  282, 
and  fower-pot  hoxea 
may  be  made  with  the 
same  construction. 

Rectangular  Boxes. 
There  are  various  meth- 
ods of  joining  their 
sides.  The  butt  joint. 
Fig.  264,  Xo.  11,  p. 
177,  is  plain,  simple, 
and  good  for  coarse 
work.  This  joint  may 
be  reinforced  as  in 
packing  boxes,  Fig. 
283. 
Mitered  joints.  Fig.  268,  No.  52,  p.  181,  are  neat  but  weak,  unless 
leinforced  by  a  spline.  Fig.  268,  Ko.  54. 

The  rabbet  or  ledge  joint,  Fig.  266,  No.  24,  p.  179,  is  both  strong 
and  neat.     It  can  be  glued  and  also  nailed  if  desired. 

The  rabbet  and  dado  joint.  Fig.  266,  No.  26,  can  be  glued  with- 
out nails  and  is  good  for  small  boxes. 

The  housed  dado,  Fig.  266,  No.  25,  is  good  for  water-tight  boxes. 
The  mitered  ledge,  Fig.  268,  No.  58,  makes  a  very  neat,  strong 
joint  which  can  be  nailed  or  glued,  but  is 
more  difficult  to  fit  than  a  simpler  joint. 
The  dovetail  joint,  Fig.  267,  No.  48, 
is  very  strong  and  honest,  but  the  joint 
is  prominent  from  the  outside  and  it 
takes  much  time  and  labor  to  maki'. 
It  is  glued. 

The   blind    dovetail,    Fig.    267,    No. 
51,    is    verv   neat    and    strong,    and    the 


Fifj.  278. 


Construction  of  a  Knock-Down   Book-Shelf 
Seen  From  the  Back. 


188 


ilANDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 


joint  is  entirely  concealed  when  done,  but  is  very  ditRcult  to  make. 
Tlic  Bottoms  of  Boxes.     Tlie  plain  or  L'uU  bottom,  Fig.  284,  A, 
is  likely  to  shrink   (see  dotted  line),  and  it  is  held  in  ]»hu-c  only  by 
the   friction   of  the  nails.     The 
extended    bottom.    Fig.    i\S4,    B, 
overcomes      the      objection      to 


1 

1  -i— ==i'i -  i^i'-i  -^- 

■^==^  1 

k  I        I     li:   {     k      y. 

u 

1      ^             It              ^1 

0           i 

Ld 

ttm--  -^^   It     ~ 

'p.  \ 

I'^iy-  -SO.     Diawiiig-Board  Construction: 
II.  With  Cleats  Screwed  on  Beneath; 
/'.  With  Cleats  Dovetail-Dadoed  in; 
,  .  Wiih  Cleats  Matched  on  Ends. 


shrinkage  and  adds  a  decorative 
featnre.  'Die  bottom  may  be 
set  in,  Fig.  '2S4,  C.  This  is 
stronger  tliaii  the  plain  bottom, 
bnt  the  nail  boles  show.  Th'^ 
bottom  may  be  raljbeted  in. 
Fig.  -^84,  I).  This  is  better 
tlian  the  set-in  bottom  so  far  as 

the  showing  of  the  nail  holes  goes,  foi'  tlic  nails  may  be  driven  in 
from  below,  and  a  little  shrinkage  is  not  conspicuous.  It  is  practi- 
cahle,  if  a  rabbet  or  mitered  joint  is  used  in  the  sides,  but  if  the  side 
pieces  are  butted  or  dadoed,  the  labbct    for  tlic  bottom  shows.     This 

may  be  clcvci'ly  concealed  by 
an  insert,  but  that  is  patch- 
work, and  not  first-rate  con- 
stiaiction. 

I'einforced  liottom.  Fig. 
284,  E.  A  plain  or  full  bottom 
is  sometimes  covered  Ijy  a  base 
or  cover  stri])  to  hide  the  joint 
and  secure  the  bottom,  as  in 
tool  chests.  This  strip  }uay 
be  mitered  at  the  corners. 

The    L/Wx   of  Boxes.     The 

siiii|)h'st    form     is    a    full     flat 

coxci'.   t'ig.  2sr)^  A,  which  may 

be    nailed    or    Screwed    to    the 

box.  as  ill  packing  cases.     The 

(•o\f!'  may  slide  into  a  groove. 

Fig.    285,    P>,    along   the   sides 

and    into   one   end.   the   otlier   end   lieing   lowered    to   admit   it.      The 

cover   may   bave  cleats  on   its   underside,    l-'ig.   28.").  E.  which   fit  just 

inside  tlie  box  and  keep  the  tojt  in  ]»lacc.     Tbe  c'eats  also  ))revent  th'^ 


Fig-.  281.     Taboret. 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


189 


Fig-.  282.     Scrap-Box. 


top  from  warping.     This  is  a  common  Japanese  construction,  even 

in  fine  boxes.     The  Japanese  tie  the  top  on  with  a  tape  or  ribbon. 
The  lid  may  be  boxed,  Fig.  285,  D,  that  is,  portions  of  the  sides 

may  be  affixed  to  the  top.     These  extra 

pieces  are  a  help  to  stiffen  the  top  and 

to  keep  it  from  warping.     A  boxed  top 

may  have  the  top  board  flush  with  the 

sides,  Fig.  285,  E.    The  disadvantage  of 

this  is  that  the  top  may  shrink  and  part 

from  the  sides  and  give  a  bad  appear- 
ance.   The  overlapping  top.  Fig.  285,  F, 

obviates   this  trouble   of   shrinkage   and 

adds  a  decorative  element.     In  this  case 

the   top   may   be   glued   on   or   screwed 

from  below  thru  the  side  strips. 

The   top   may   be    mitered   into   the 

sides,  Fig.  285,  G.    The  shrinkage  trou- 
ble   still    obtains    here.      Otherwise   the 

appearance  is  excellent.    The  top  may  be  paneled  into  the  sides,  Fig. 

285,  H.    This  has  a  good  appearance  if  the  sides  are  mitered  or  ledged 

but  not  if  the  sides  are  butted  or  dadoed,  because  then  the  groove  for 

the  top  shows. 

Any  of  these  lids  may  be  made  removable  or  hinged,  except  the 

sliding  top.    For  methods  of  hinging  see  p.  132. 

In  gluing  boxes  together,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  glue  the  ends 
and  sides  together  first  and  to 
let  these  joints  dry  before 
gluing  on  the  bottom  and,  in 
the  case  of  a  boxed  top,  Fig. 
285,  D,  the  top.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  sides  do 
not  bow  under  the  pressure. 
To  prevent  this,  one  or  more 
false,  temporary  partitions  as 
A,  B,  in  Fig.  286,  of  exactly 
the    length    to    keep    the    sides 

straight,  may  be  inserted.     In  gluing  together  boxes  with   rabbeted 

joints,  Fig.   285,  H,  pressure  should  be  applied  in  both   directions. 


Fig-.  283.    Reinforced  Butt  Joint  in  Box. 


190 


HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 


In  gluing  on  tlio  bottom  of  a  l)ox  tliat  is  also  to  be  nailed,  the  nai's 
shonlcl  be  driwn  into  the  bottom  iivst,  so  that  the  points  just  come 
thru.  These  points  sticking  into  the  sides  will  prevent  the  bottom 
from   slipping  when  pressure  is  a]>]iliod.     Tt  is  often  undesirable  to 


^^^^^^S 


>'i^s?$^'^;$>s$ 


^ 


^  ^^^^^^      ^^m>:^\^\^ 


^\^\K<\\\\\V^ 


Fit^.  284.     Methods  of  Attacliins' Box  Bottoms. 

have  nail  lieails  sliow.  as  in  a  top.  In  such  a  case,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent the  top  from  slipping  under  pressure,  a  couple  of  small  brads 
may  l)e  driven  part  way  into  the  upper  edges  of  the  sides,  the  heads  bit- 
ten oH'  with  the  nippers,  and  points  filed  on  the  projecting  portion. 

Prinrcrs,  In  the  best  form,  tlie  sides  are  dovetailed  to  the  front 
for  strengtii.  Fig.  "iS?.  for  whenever  the  drawer  is  opened  the  front 
tends  to  |)iill  away  fioiii  the  sides.  This  dovetail  is  half  blind,  so 
that  the  joint  will  not  appear  when  the  drawer  is  shut.  In  order  that 
the  drawer  may  always  run  freely  and  yet  tln^  fiont  fit  the  opening  as 


Fitr.  285.     Forms  of  Box  Consliuciiuii. 


close  as  possible,  it  is  connnon  practice  to  cut  a  shallow  rabbet  on 
tlic  ends  of  tlie  front,  so  that  the  body  of  the  drawer  is  a  little  nar- 
lowtT  tlian  \hv  front  is  lona',  Fiii'.  'iST.     Or  the  front  mav  be  attached 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


191 


to  the   sides   with   a   dado  tongue   and   rabbet   joint.   Fig.   2(36,   No. 
37,  p.  179. 

The  bottom  is  grooved  into  the  sides  with  its  grain  parallel  to 
the  front  and  fastened  only  to  the  front  so  that  it  has  plenty  of  play 
for  shrinkage.  The  l)aek  is  dadoed  into  the  sides,  with  either  a 
straight  dado, 
Fig.  2Q6,  No. 
35,  p.  179,  01 
dovetail  dado, 
Fig.  266,  No. 
28,  and  rests 
on  the  bottom. 
The  extension 
of  the  bottom 
beyond  the 
1)ack  allows  am- 
ple    room     for 

1      .     T  Fitr.  28i>.     Clueiiitr  Tosrether  a  Box. 

shrinkage. 

The  best  niaehine-made  drawers  are  now  made  with  the  bottom 
paneled  or  dadoed  in  all  around  so  that  papers  cannot  s!ip  out.  The 
back,  as  well  as  the  front,  is  dovetailed. 

D ire ctio rift  for  Mal-iug  a  Table  Drawer.  Dress  the  front  and  sides 
to  size.  Fit  the  front  of  the  drawer  to  its  place  in  the  table  or  cabinet, 
leaving  a  little  play  all  around  it.  Plow  the  groove  in  the  fiont  and  sides 
for  the  drawer  bottom.     For  ordinary  drawers,  a  groove  ^"  wide  is 

proper.  If  the  ends 
of  the  fiont  arc  to  be 
rabbeted  (see  above), 
do  this  next.  The 
sides  are  best  joined 
to  the  front  with  the 
half-blind  dovetail 
joint.  (For  directions 
see  p.  166).  After 
fitting  these,  lay  out 
and  cut  the  dadoes  for 
the  back  of  the  drawer. 
Prepare  the  bottom  of 

Fi?.28-.     Dovetailed  Drawer  Construction.  ^'^'^    drawer    thllS  :      the 


192 


HAXDWOEK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig-.  288.  Door,  Illustrating-  Panel 
Construction:  S.  Stile:  T.  R.  Top  Rail: 
L.  R.  Lock  Rail:  B.R.  Bottom  Rail: 
M.  Muntin:  P.  Panel;  A.  Double  Mortise- 
and-Tenon;  F.  Fillet;  A.  B.C.  Forims  of 
Panels. 


,uraiii  should  run  right  and 
left,  never  front  and  back.  If 
tlir  drawer  is  so  long  as  to  re- 
(juire  it.  glue-joint  the  bot- 
tom, and  fit  it  snugly  to  place. 
There  need  be  no  play  right 
and  left,  and  the  bottom  should 
extend  as  far  back  as  the  sides. 
If  necessar}^  bevel  the  under 
side  to  fit  the  grooves.  Assem- 
Ide  all  the  parts  to  see  that  they 
fit,  take  them  apart,  glue  the 
sides  to  the  front  and  back, 
slip  the  bott(Mn  into  place,  ap- 
]ily  tile  (-lamps,  and  see  to  it 
that  all  joints  are  sipiare,  using 
a  diagdiial  hrace  if  necessary, 
Fig.  294.  Fasten  the  bottom  to  the  front  by  means  of  a  thin  block 
glued  into  the  interior  angle  between  the  under  side  of  the  bottom 
and  tlie  back  side  of  the  front.  When  dry,  clean  up  the  drawer  and 
fit  it  to  its  ])hu'e. 

(3)    PAN'EL    STRl'CTURES 

These  include  doors  and  cal)inets  of  all  sorts.  The  principle  of 
panel  or  t'al)inet  constructidu  is  that  there  shall  lie  a  frame  composed 
of  narrow  members  whose  grain  fo'lows  the  principal  dimensions. 
In  the  best  construction  this  frame  is  mortised  and  tenoned  together 
and  within  this  frame  there  is  set  a  thin  board  or 
panel  wliit-li  is  t'i'cc  to  shrink  or  swell  but  is  pre- 
vented from  warping  hy  the  stift'er  frame.  The 
object  is  to  cover  an  extended  surface  in  such  a  way 
that  the  geiu'i'al  dimensions  and  good  appearance 
will  not  be  atfeete(l  by  whatever  shrinkage  there  is. 
Since  the  frame  itself  is  made  up  of  narrow  pieces, 
there  is  but  little  shi-inkage  in  them.  That  shrink- 
age is  all  that  alTects  the  size  of  the  whole  structure, 
because  wood  does  not  shrink  longitudinally  to  any  appreciable 
extent.  'I'he  shi-inking  or  swelling  of  the  panel  does  not  affect 
the    geiKM-al    size.      The    cross    construction    of    the    frame    also    pre- 


K— -  t 


Fig.  28'i. 

The  Way  a  Mit- 

ered  Joint  Opens 

on  Account  of 

Shrinkage. 


TYPES  OF   WOODEiY   STRUCTURES. 


193 


Fig-.  2W.    Chest  Construction. 


vents  warping,  since,  in  the 
best  construction  every  joint  is 
mortised  and  tenoned.  The 
l^anel  may  simply  be  fastened 
on  the  back  of  the  frame,  but  a 
better  construction  is  to  insert 
it  in  a  groove  made  in  tbe  in- 
side of  the  frame  in  which  the 
panel  is  to  lie  and  have  free 
play.  The  panel  may  be  made 
of  one  board  or  of  matched 
boards,  may  be  plain  or  have 
raised  or  carved  surfaces,  or  be 

of  glass ;   and  the  joints  between  frame  and  panel  may  be  embellished 

with  moldings  mitered  in,  but  the  principle  is  the  same  in  all  cases. 

The  frame  of  a  door,  Fig.  288,  il- 
lustrates  the   panel    construction.      The 

upright,    outside    pieces    are    called    the 

"stiles,"  the  horizontal  pieces  the  "rails." 

There  are  also  the  "top-rail,"  the  "bot- 
tom-rail,"   the    "lock-rail"     (where    the 

door-knob   and  lock   are  inserted),   and 

sometimes  the  "frieze-rail"  between  the 

lock  rail  and  the  top  rail.     The  "mun- 

tin"    is    the    upright    between    the    two 

stiles. 

The    joint    commonly    used    is    the 

haunched      or      relished      mortise-and- 

tenon,  Fig.  3G7,  No.  42,  p.  180;     (See 

p.  163  for  directions  for  making).     The 

tenon   is   sometimes   doubled.   Fig.   288, 

and  a  fillet  (f )  may  be  inserted  to  cover 

the  ends  of  the  tenons,  or  the  joint  may 

be  a  blind  mortise-and-tenon.  Fig.  266, 

No.  32,  or  in  cheap  construction,  dowels 

may  be  used.     The  best  doors  are  now 

made  with  cores  of  pine  covered  on  the        j,,^  jqi    a  cross-SecUon  Thru 

visible  sides  with  heavy  veneer.     Large        ^  ^r'r^!.  ^Lt'^t^ll 

surfaces   are   covered   by  increasing  the        ^^'^^.'^fn^'oT rIil'"''  shouider 


194 


IIANDWUIIK    JN     WUOD. 


Fig.  2''2.  Table  Construction:  Upper  Drawer 

Rail  of  Table  Dovetailed  into 

Left  Front  Leg. 


number    of    parts    rather    than 
tlieii-  .size,  as  in  wainscoting. 

I'icture-franics  also  belong 
in  tliis  class  of  structures,  the 
glass  taking  the  place  of  the 
panel.  They  are  made  with 
mortise-and-tenon  joints,  Fig. 
26G,  Xo.  33,  slip  joints,  Fig. 
l^GT,  No.  4G,  dowelled  butt 
joints.  Fig.  264,  No.  8,  end  lap 
joints.  Fig.  265,  No.  17,  and, 
Tar  more  commonly,  mitered 
joints.  Fig.  268,  No.  52.  Mi- 
tered joints  are  the  easiest  to 
make,  for  the  joints  can  be  cut 

in  a  miter-box,  Fig.  181,  p.  104,  and  glued  in  a  picture-frame-vise. 

Fig.  172,  p.  101.     This  joint  needs  reinforcement  by  nails,  Fig.  268, 

No.  52,  by  dowels.  No.  53,  or  by  splines.  No.  55.     If  the  sides  are  of 

diiferent  widths,  the  fitting  of  the  joint  is  more  ditticult.     filtered 

joints  are   the  only  kind  suitable  for  molded   frames.     Tlie   rabbets 

are  cut  out  with  a  rabl)eting-plane  before  mitering  and  assembling. 
The  jirinciple  disadvantage  of  a  mitered  joint  is  that,  if  the  wood 

shrinks   at   all,   it  opens   at   the 

inside  corneis,  as   in    Fig.   289, 

because    wood    shrinks    sidu'wise 

but    not    lengthwise. 

In  window  sashes,  the  dove- 

t;iil   joint,    l''ig.   2i)7.   No.   47.   is 

the    (•oiiinion    one    at    the    u])per 

end    of   the    hiwer   sash   and   the 

h)Wer    end     of    the    upper    sash. 

and  the  niortise-and-tenoii  joint 

modified    is    used    at    the    lower 

end  of  the  lower  and   upper  end 

of    the    Tipper    sash.      'I'lie    glass 

takes    the    ])lace    of    the    pane'. 

Tn     1)1  ind     sashes,     the     pinned 

moi-tise-and-tenon     joint.     Fig. 

267,  No.  38,  is  comnionlv  used. 


Fig.  2''3.     The  Fixing  of  a  Drawer  Rail, 
Seen  From  Below. 


TYPES  OF   WOODEN   STRUCTURES.  195 

When  panels  are  joined  together  to  enclose  a  space,  then  we  have 
what  is  properly  called  cabinet  constrnction.  Illustrations  are  cabi- 
nets, bureaus,  desks,  lockers,  chests,  etc. 

In  all  these  cases,  the  constructed  panels  may  be  treated  as  sepa- 
rate boards  and  joined  together  with  dowel  pins  or  splines  or  dadoed 
together  without  any  other  framework,  tho  the  corners  are  often  re- 
inforced by  cleats  or  blocks  glued  into 
them.        Sometimes,     however,     as     in 
chests,  Fig.  290,  posts  are  used  instead 
of  stiles,  and  rails  are  mortised  or  dow- 
eled into  them  and  the  panels  set  into 
grooves  in  both  posts  and  rails.     In  this 
case  the  bottom  is  raised  from  tlie  floor, 
and   may    be    dadoed    into    the    bottom        Fig.  294.   Brace  to  insure  Right 

.,  ,  Ti     1      ■     J         11  Angles  in  Assembling  a 

rails,    or    doweiled    into    them    or    even  Framed  structure, 

supported  by  strips  attached  along  their 

lower  inside  edges.     The  chest  really  is  a  union  of  both  paneled  and 
framed  structures. 

(4)     FRAMED    STRUCTURES 

The  principle  of  the  framed  structure  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
panel  construction  in  that  the  object  is  to  allow  for  shrinkage  with- 
out harm  to  construction  and  also  to  economize  materials.  Common 
examples  are  tables,  chairs,  work-benches,  and  frame  houses. 

The  Mahing  of  a  Table.  The  standard  height  of  a  table  is  30". 
There  should  be  25"  clearance  under  the  rails.  This  leaves  approxi- 
mately 4"  for  the  width  of  the  rails.  xA.ssuming  tliat  the  table  is  to 
be  of  a  siuiple  straight  line  type  with  one  drawer,  the  following 
method  of  procedure  is  suggested : 

Cut  the  boards  for  the  top  to  the  approximate  length  and  stick, 
'(see  p.  47)  and  clamp  them,  so  as  to  season  them  as  well  as  j^os- 
sible  before  jointing. 

Dress  to  size  the  legs  and  rails.  Stand  the  legs  in  their  proper 
positions  relative  to  each  other,  and  mark  them  F  E  (front  right), 
F  L  (front  left),  B  E  (back  right),  and  B  L  (l)ack  left).  Plow 
out  the  grooves  on  the  inside  of  the  rails  for  the  fastenings  of  the 
top.  Fig.  297,  D,  if  they  are  to  be  used.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  tenons 
and  mortises  for  the  end  rails  and  back  rail. 

The  proper  form  of  the  tenon  is  one  with  a  wide  shoulder  above 
it  so  that  the  top  of  the  leg  al)ovo  tlie  mortise  will  not  sliear  out.     The 


196 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


K5,cJe    l^o,l 

\£6u,cJe 


■/fur 


--$-■- 


Fijr.  2'i5.     Drawer  Mechanism. 


I'ails  should  Ijl'  SL't  lU'ar  the  oulsitk'  oi'  llie  leg  so  that  the  tenon  may 
he  as  long  as  i)ossil)le  and  the  portion  of  the  leg  inside  it  as  strong 
as  possihie.  A  hauiuluMl  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  Fig.  267,  No.  43 
is  sonu'tiines  useih  giving  additional  lateral  stiffness  to  the  rail.     The 

])ioper    proportions    are   shown    in    Fig. 
■.'IM.      Wlien   eut.  these   parts  should  be 
tenipoi'arily  asseiuhled  to  see  if  thev  fit. 
Inasnuieh    as    a    drawer    takes    the 
]  hue  of  a  front  rail,  the  front  legs  must 
he  tied  together  in  some  other  way.    For 
ihis    ])uipose    two    stringers    or    drawer 
lai's  may  he  used,  their  front  edges  be- 
ing as   fai-  from  the  face  of  the  legs  as 
ai'e   tile    rails   fi'om    the   side   and   back. 
The    uppi'i'    drawer    rail    may    be    dove- 
taileil  at   Inith  ends   into  the  tops  of  the 
legs,    as    shown    in     Fig.    202.      If    this 
takes     more     room     than     can     well     be 
sipaied    I'ldm  the  depth  of  the  drawer,  it    mav  be  oiiiitted.  but  it  adds 
greatly    to   the   still'ness   of   the    tab'e   and    is    an    excellent    means    of 
fastening  on  the  top  by  the  use  of  screws  ]tassiiig  thru  it. 

The  (li'awer  rail,  also  called  the  f(U'e  edge,  is  long  enough  to  partly 
overlap  the  side  rails,  into  the  lower  edges  of  which  it  is  gained  so 
as  to  be  flush  with  them,  and  may  be  fastened  to  them  with  screws. 
Fig.  2!».").  The  construction  may  be  further  strengthened  by  also 
doweling  the  end  of  this  stretcher  into  the  legs.  If  there  are  two 
drawers,  the  ])ai'tition  between  them  may  be  doweled  or  gained  into 
these  uppei'  and  lower  stretchers. 

If  the  legs  ai'c  to  ])c  ta])ered  oi'  otliei'wise  shaped,  that  should  be 
done  next.  '^Dien  g'ue  and  assemble  the  end  lails  with  their  proper 
legs,  tak'ing  care  to  see  not  only  that  the  joints  conu'  u])  square,  but 
that  the  legs  are  in  the  same  plane,  b'inally  assemble  the  whole,  in- 
serting, if  necessary,  a  temporary  diagonal  brace  to  insure  square- 
ness. l*'ig.  2!»  1.  When  (h'y.  clean  up  the  joints.  For  the  making  of  a 
table  drawer,  see  above,  p.   I'.M. 

To  lit  the  diawci'  to  its  |)laci'.  I'unneis  and  guides.  Fig.  295,  must 
first  l)e  fastened  in.  The  runin'rs  are  in  line  with  the  drawer  rail, 
and  are  glued  and  nailed  or  screwed  to  the  side  rails  between  the 
back  of  the  'owei'  sti'inger  and  the  ba(k   posts.     On  top  of  them  and 


TYPES  OF   WOODEN   STRUCTURES. 


197 


in  line  with  the  inner  face  of  the  legs  are  the  guides  running  between 
the  front  and  back  posts.  Or  the  runner  and  guide  may  be  made  of 
one  piece  properly  rabbeted  out. 

If  there  are  two  drawers,  a  double  runner  lies  between,  and  is 
gained  into  the  middles  of  the 


€ 


2'iij.     Openiiii'  (or   Drawer  Cut   Out  of 
Front  Rail  of  Table. 


back  rail  and  the  stringer,  and 
on  it  is  a  guide  for  ])otli  draw- 
ers, equal  in  width  to  the  par- 
tition between  the  drawers.  The 
drawers  should  run  easily  in 
their  proper  places.  In  order 
to     insure     this,     the     drawer 

should  be  slightly  narrower  than  the  opening  wliich  receives  it.  A 
little  French  chalk,  rubbed  on  the  sides  and  runners,  makes  the  run- 
ning smoother.  .Sometimes  the  opening  for  a  drawer  is  cut  out  of 
the  front  rail,  as  in  Fig.  296.  In  this  case  the  drawer  runners  are 
supported  between  the  front  and  back  rails,  into  which  tliev  mav 
be  gained. 

For  the  making  of  the  table  top  see  edge-to-edge  joint,  p.  172. 
Dress  up  the  top  to  size,  taking  special  pains  with  the  upper  surface. 
If  the  grain  is  crossed,  use  the  veneer-scraper.  Fig.  151,  p.  92,  then 
sand,  first  with  No.  1,  then  with  Xo.  00  sandpaper,  finish  the  edges 
carefully,  and  attach  to  the  frame. 

For  fastening  the  top  to  the  table  rails,  several  methods  are  used. 
The  top  may  be  screwed  to  the  rails  by  the  screws  passing  thru  the 
rails  themselves  either  straight  up.  Fig,  297,  A,  or  diagonally  from 


Fig-.  297.    Methods  of  attaching-  Table  Top  to  Rails. 


the  inside,  B,  or  thru  blocks  or  angle  irons,  C,  which  are  screwed 
to  the  inside  of  the  rails,  or  thru  buttons,  or  panel  irons,  U,  which 
are  free  to  move  in  a  groove  cut  near  the  top  of  the  rail.     The  last 


198 


IIAXDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 


method  is  the  best  because  it  allows  for  the  inevitable  shrinkage  and 
swelling  of  the  top. 

Chairs  may  be  so  simplitied  in  form  as  to  be  possible  for  the  ama- 
teur to  construct.  The  two  front  legs  and  the  rail  and  stretcher  be- 
tween them  offer  little  diflficulty  because  the  angles  are  square. 


Fitf.  2'>S.     Chair  C^)ll^^ll•ucli()ll. 


The  two  back  legs,  may,  foi-  the  jturpose  of  simplification,  be  kept; 
parallel  to  each  other  and  at  right  angles  to  the  seat  rails  between 
them,  as  in  Fig.  298,  A,  and  not  at  an  angle  as  in  B.  The  joining 
of  the  back  will  then  offer  little  difficuHy.  The  principal  difficulties 
lie  ill  the  facts  tliat  t'oi'  comfort  and  appearance  the  back  of  the  chair 
shoiibl  incline  backwai'd  lidtli  altovc  and  below  the  seat,  and  that  the 
liack  of  the  scat  should  be  narrower  than  the  front.  By  keeping  at 
right  angles  to  the  floor  the  part  of  the  back  legs  which  leceives  the 
seat  rail,  the  side  seat  I'ails  will  meet  the  back  legs  at  a  right  angle 
in  a  side  view.  Fig.  298.  The  l)ack  legs  should  be  slightly  shortei 
than  Ibe  fioiit  legs,  as  shown  in  1). 

'I'lie  second  dilliculty  in\(il\-es  tlie  making  of  inclined  mortise-and- 
tcnon    joiiils.  A.  whei'e  the  side  ]'ails  fit  into  the  leas.     The  making 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


199 


Fig-.  299.     Bendicgr  Boards  into 
Shape  after  Boiling-  Them. 


of  these  can  be  facilitated  by 
laying  out  a  plan  of  the  full 
size  and  taking  the  desired  an- 
gles directly  from  that.  It  is 
common  to  leinforce  these 
joints  with  corner  blocks  glued 
and  screwed  in  place  as  shown 
in  A.  If  there  are  additional 
lails  below  the  seat  rails,  the 
easiest  way  to  fit  them  in 
])lace  is  first  to  fit  and  clamp 

together  the  chair  with  the  seat  rails  only,  taking  pains  to  have  all 
angles  perfectly  true,  and  then  to  take  the  exact  measurements  for 
the  lower  rails  directly  from  the  chair.  The  same  method  may  he 
used  for  laying  out  a  stringer  between  the  lower  rails. 

If  it  is  desired  to  bow  the  rails  of  the  back,  which  are  above  the 
seat  rail,  this  can  be  done  by  boiling  them  in  water  for  30  minutes 
and  then  clamping  th.em  over  a  form  of  the  proper  shape,  with  a 
piece  of  stiff  sheet  iron  on  the  outside,  as  in  Fig.  299.  They  should 
be  thoroly  dried  in  a  warm  place.  Then  the  tenons  may  be  laid  out 
on  the  ends  parallel  to  a  straight-edge  laid  along  the  concave  side. 
The  chair  bottom  may  be  made  of  solid  wood,  either  fiat  or  modeled 
into  a  "saddle  seat;""  it  may  be  covered  with  cane  or  I'lish,  or  it  may 
be  upholstered. 

To  upholster  a  chair  seat,  a  frame  should  first  be  made  of  the 

shape    shown     in     Fig. 


298,  C.  The  stiips  are 
about  2"  wide  and  ^" 
thick  witb  their  ends 
ha'f-lappetl.  The  seat 
rai's  are  rabbeted  y^" 
deep  and  >4"  wide  to 
receive  this  frame, 
whic-h  should  be  Ys" 
smaller  all  around  than 
the  1)1  ace  to  receive  it. 
The  returns  at  the  cor- 
ners fit  around  the  legs  at  ^"  distance  from  them.  This  %"  pro- 
vides space  for  the  coverings.     After  the  frame  is  fitted,  it  is  covered 


1  - 

■^ 

■^-, 

■^ 

■^       \ 

1   - 

>  — 

:iL  - 

>  ^— 

■> 

-~   ^ 

Gcl.nR 

1  -1 

r-^^^ 

r— ^:^ 

_^-r-: 

l^r^ 

-l^-J 

t"     *Je.    "-^'M''^.     '^'     J' 

Fig.  301.     Siding,  Ceiling,  Flooring. 


200 


HANDWOlUv   J^•    WOOD. 


with  o"  webbing  tacked  firmly  to  the  upper  side.  Tlie  webbing  whieli 
goes  back  and  forth  is  interwoven  with  that  wliicli  goes  from  right 
to  left.  Over  this  is  stretched  and  tacked  (also  to  the  upper  side)  a 
piece  of  unbleached  muslin.     A  second  piece  of  muslin  is  tacked  to 


Fij/.  300.     House  Construction. 


the  hack  edge  and  part  way  along  llic  side  edges,  k-aving  for  the 
time  the  corners  unfinished.  In  the  pocket  thus  formed  horsehair  or 
other  stuffing  is  pushed,  care  being  taken  to  distribute  it  evenly  and 
not  too  thick.  When  the  pocket  is  filled,  the  muslin  is  tacked  farther 
along  the  sides  and  more  hair  i)ut  in,  until  the  front  is  reached,  when 
the  muslin  is  tacked  to  the  front  edge.  The  corners  are  now  drawn 
in  tight,  a  careful  snip  with  the  scissors  parting  them  diagonally  so 
as  to  lie  in  well.  The  partings  may  be  turned  down  and  tacked  on 
the  under  side  of  the  frame. 

Finally  the  heather  or  other  covering  is  stretched  over  the  whole 
as  evenly  as  ])ossible.     The  corners  should  he  left  to  the  last,  then 


Ti'PES  OF  WOODEN   STRUCTURES.  201 

clipped  diagonally  to  the  exact  inside  corner  and  the  partings  drawn 
down  and  tacked,  as  was  the  muslin.  The  superfluous  leather  may 
then  be  trimmed  off,  and  the  seat  should  fit  in  its  place.  Or  the  seat 
frame  may  be  omitted,  and  the  coverings  tacked  directly  to  the  chair 
rails. 

The  bal]oon-frame  house  is  a  typical  form  of  framed  construc- 
tion, Fig.  300.     The  essential  parts  of  a  balloon-frame  are: 

1.  SILL,  4"x8",  which  rests  on  the  foundation. 

2.  BEAMS,  4"x8",  which  rest  on  the  cellar  posts,  6"xC)".  (Not  shown 
in  illustration. ) 

3.  FLOOR  JOISTS,  2"x8",  which  rest  on  the  sill  and  beams. 

4.  CORNER  POSTS,  4"x6",  with  2"x4"  studs  nailed  to  them. 

5.  STUDDING,  2"x4",  which  stand  16"  between  centers. 

6.  WALL  RIBBON,  or  girt,  I"x8".  which  supports  the  upper  story  joists. 

7.  PLATES,  two  2"x4"  nailed  together,  resting  on  studs. 

8.  RAFTERS.  2"x6",  which  support  the  roof. 

9.  TIE-BEAMS,  2"x(!",  which  prevent  the  roof  from  s]ircading  tlie  walls. 
(Not  shown  in  illustration.) 

10.  RIDGE-POLE,  2"x8",  against  wliich  the  rafters  l)utt. 

11.  BRIDGING,   2"x2",   which   stiffens  the   floor   joists. 

12.  SHEATHING.    (1"  thick),  put  on  diagonally  to  brace  the  building. 
The  rest  is  covering. 

13.  FLOORING.    (See  also  Fig.  301.) 

In  flooring,  Fig.  301,  the  boards  are  made  narrow  so  as  to  reduce  the 
size  of  openings  at  the  joints  when  they  shrink,  and  also  to~  reduce  the 
tendency  to  warp.  They  may  be  laid  side  by  side  as  in  the  cheapest  floors, 
or  matched  to  close  the  joint.  For  difference  between  slash-  and  comb-grain 
flooring,  see  Fig  55,  p.  43. 

14.  BUILDING  PAPER. 

15.  SIDING  OR  CLAPBOARDS.  (See  Fig.  301.)  may  either  overlap 
without  a  joint  or  be  rabbeted  to  fit.     The  best  siding  is  rabbeted. 

16.  WATER-TABLE. 

17.  CORNER-BOARD. 

18.  FURRING. 

19.  SHINGLES. 

20.  LATHING. 

21.  CEILING.  Fig.  301,  consists  of  matched  boards  liaving  a  "bead"  to 
disguise  the  joint  and  give  a  decorative  eft'ect. 


202  liANDWOKK   IX    WOOD. 


TYPES   OF   WOODEN    t^TRUCTURES 


Refekexces:* 

Simple  Joined  Structures. 

Benson,   pp.   32-37.  ^^•hee]er.   pp.   86.   •219-227.   376. 

Goss,  pp.   91-1)6.  Siekels.  p.    120. 

Xoyes,   tSchool   Ails   Bonk.   6:  Griffith,    pp.    84-104. 

89,   179. 


Panel   and  Caldnet  Construction. 

Goss.   PI).    117-118.    148-l.il.  Sicked,   p.    134. 

Compton.    pp.    146-151.  Wheeler,   pp.   366-372. 


Framed   Structures. 

Crawshaw.  Sickels.  p.   124. 

Wheeler,   pp.   203-206.   238-297.  liiiildiiifi  Trades  Poclethonk.  pp.  221 

230. 

Coverings. 

Sickels.    ],p.    128-131.  Goss.   p]..    141-144. 


''For  general    bibliography  sec  p.  4. 


Chapter  IX. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  JOINERY." 

1.  Avoid  multiplication  of  errors  hi/  making  all  measurcmenis  (as 
far  as  possible)  from  a  common  starting  point,  and  laying  off  all 
angles  from  the  same  line  or  surface.  Illustrations  of  this  principle 
are  as  follows :  Before  proceeding-  with  other  processes,  a  working 
face  and  working  edge  and  as  many  other  surfaces  as  will  finally  ap- 
pear in  the  finished  piece,  should  he  trued  up.  At  least  the  working 
face  and  working  edge  are  essential  to  the  proper  "lay-out"  of  the 
piece,  whenever  measurements  are  made  from  an  edge. 

In  laying  out  a  series  of  measurements,  it  is  important,  when  pos- 
sible, that  the  rule  be  laid  down  once  for  all,  and  the  additions  be 
made  on  that,  rather  than  that  tlie  rule  should  be  moved  along  for 
each  new  member  of  the  series. 

In  scoring  around  a  board  with  knife  and  try-square,  the  head  of 
the  try-square  should  be  held  against  the  working  face  in  scoring 
both  edges,  and  against  the  working  edge  in  scoring  both  faces,  and 
not  passed  from  one  surface  to  another  in  succession. 

In  the  laying  out  of  a  hah^ed  joint.  Fig.  265,  Nos.  15-19,  p.  178, 
the  gaging  is  all  done  from  what  will  be  one  of  the  flush  surfaces  of 


"Professor  Eankine"s  Five  Principles: 

1.  To  cut  the  joints  and  arrange  the  fastenings  so  as  to  weaken  the 
pieces  of  timber  they  connect  as  little  as  possible. 

2.  To  place  each  abutting  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearly  as  possible  per- 
pendicular to  the  pressure  which  it  has  to  transmit. 

3.  To  proportion  the  area  of  each  surface  to  the  pressure  which  it  has 
to  bear  so  that  the  timber  may  be  safe  against  injury  under  the  heaviest 
load  which  occurs  in  practice,  and  to  form  and  fit  every  jjair  of  such  sur- 
faces accurately  in  order  to  distribute  the  stress  uniformly. 

4.  To  proportion  the  fastenings  so  that  they  may  be  of  equal  strength 
with  the  pieces  which  they  connect. 

5.  To  place  the  fastenings  in  each  piece  of  timber  so  that  there  shall  be 
sufficient  resistance  to  the  giving  way  of  the  joint  by  the  fastenings  shearing 
or  crushing  their  way  thru  the  timber. 

203 


204 


HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 


Fig-.  302. 
Marking-  by  Superposition. 


the  joined  pieces.  Then,  if  the  gaged  line  should  be  slightly  more  or 
less  than  half  the  thickness  of  the  pieces  the  closeness  of  the  joint 
would  not  be  aifected. 

2.  ]yhen  possible,  in  hnjing  out  a  joint,  use  the  method  of  super- 
position, Fig.  ;30-3.    By  this  is  meant  the  method  by  which  the  lay-out 

of  one  member  is  obtained  di- 
rectly from  the  other  by  lay- 
ing (superposing)  the  latter 
on  the  former  and  marking  or 
scribing  the  needed  dimen- 
sions directly,  instead  of  by 
measurement.  It  has  the  ad- 
vantages of  simplicity,  speed, 
and  greater  probability  of  fit. 
Familiar  illustrations  are 
in  the  making  of  halved  joints, 
Fig.  2r).5,  Xos.  15-19,  p.  178. 
dovetail  joints,  Fig.  267,  Xos. 
42-45.  p.  180,  and  scarfed  or 
spliced  joints.  Fig.  2<)4,  Xos.  4-T.  p.  ITT. 

3.  IForA;  systematically.  In  case  the  same  process  is  to  be  re- 
peated on  a  number  of  parts,  complete  this  process  in  all  before 
taking  up  another  process.  This  is  the  principle  of  the  division  of 
labor  applied  to  the  individual  workman. 

In  laying  out  duplicate  or  multiple  parts,  the  proper  cross  meas- 
urements should  be  carefully  laid  out  on  one  piece  and  then 
transferred  with  a  try-square  to  the  other  parts  laid  accurately  be- 
side it.  So  when  a  number  of  like  pieces  are  to  be  gaged,  all  the 
parts  requiring  the  same  setting  should  be  gaged  before  the  gage  is 
reset  for  another  gaging.  This  is  a  great  saving  of  time  and  insures 
accuracy. 

In  making  a  number  of  like  parts,  if  they  are  not  too  large  much 
of  the  work  can  often  be  done  in  one  piece  before  it  is  cut  up.  For 
example,  to  make  a  number  of  slats  from  a  given  piece  of  wood,  the 
piece  may  first  be  brought  to  such  dimensions  that  the  length  will  be 
correct  for  the  finished  pieces  and  tlie  thickness  of  the  piece  be  equal 
to  the  width  of  the  slats,  Fig.  3(»;i.  The  face  may  then  be  gaged  with 
a  series  of  lines  so  that  every  other  space  will  be  equal  to  the  required 
thickness  of  each  slat,  and  the  alternate  Sj^aces  be  just  sufficient  for 


PRINCIPLES   OF   JOIXERY. 


205 


I      11      II      II       ^ 


Fig-.  303.    Making:  a  Number  of 
Like  Pieces  from  a  Given  Piece. 


the  saw  kerf  and  dressing.     The  slats  may  then  l)e  ripped  apart  and 
dressed  to  size. 

Or,  a  long  strip  may  be  planed  to  thickness  and  width  and  then 
be  sawn  np  and  finished  to  the  proper  lengths.  For  example,  in  a 
initered  picture-frame  it  may  be  convenient  to  ])laiie  np  two  pieces, 
each  one  long  enough  to  make  one  long 
side  and  one  short  side. 

In  fitting  up  framed  structures  each 
part  when  fitted  should  be  distinctly 
marked,  so  that  there  may  be  no  con- 
fusion in  assembling. 

4.  V^liere  pradwabh  secure  the 
same  condHwns  of  grain  in  different 
elements  of  joined  structures. 

Illustrations  of  this  are  as  follows:  The  grain  of  the  sides  of  a 
box  should  run  continuously  around  the  box,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  tall, 
slim  box,  the  grain  of  all  the  sides  should  run  up  and  down.  In 
either  case,  the  grain  in  the  dilferent  sides  is  parallel.  In  a  rubbed 
joint,  Fig.  269,  Xo.  TO,  p.  183,  to  be  planed  down  afterward,  in  case 
the  grain  is  not  straight,  much  trouble  in  planing  may  be  saved  if 
the  different  pieces  are  laid  so  that  they  can  all  be  planed  smooth  in 
the  same  direction.  This  may  not  be  possible  where  the  boards  are 
joined  so  as  to  match  the  grain,  as  in  quartered  oak,  or  where  the 
annual  rings  of  slash  boards  are  made  to  alternate  in  direction  so  as 
to  lessen  warping.  Fig.  280,  p.  188. 

5.  Where  possible,  alJoir  for  shrinhige  irithout  prejudice  to  con- 
struction. 

The  most  obvious  illustration  of  this  principle  is  panel  construc- 
tion. In  a  panel,  the  frame,  which  is  comparatively  narrow,  follows 
the  principal  dimensions,  and  hence  does  not  seriously  shrink  or 
swell  itself.  But  the  panel,  which  is  grooved  into  the  frame  can 
shrink  or  swell  without  harm  to  the  general  structure. 

In  a  gained  joint,  as  in  a  case  of  shelves.  Fig.  266,  No.  29,  p.  179, 
the  gain  in  the  uprights  does  not  extend  quite  to  the  front  of  the 
shelves,  and  there  is  a  corresponding  slight  shoulder  at  the  front  end 
of  the  shelf,  so  that  if  the  shelf  and  support  shrink  unevenly,  no  gap 
will  be  appai'ent. 

A  drawing-board.  Fig.  280,  p.  188,  is  so  made  that  it  can  shrink 
or  swell  without  losing  its  flatness.  Shingles  when  properly  laid,  can 
shrink  or  swell  without  the  roof  leaking. 


206  HANDWuKK   Ii\    V\'00lJ, 

().  WJwre  feasible,  iindereuf  joiiicil  surf  dees  so  as  to  gire  clearance 
on  the  Inside  and  insure  a  tiglii  a [qicantnce.  But  e/tued  surface.^^ 
shoutd  he  made  to  meet  flat. 

Illustrations  of  this  principle  are  as  follows:  The  inner  end  of 
the  socket  in  a  dovetail  joint.  Fig.  267,  Xo.  -tS,  p.  180,  may  he  under- 
cut slightly  so  as  to  insure  the  pin's  falling  close  into  place. 

The  shoulder  of  any  tenon  may  he  undercut  so  as  to  al'ow  the 
edges  of  the  tenoned  piece  to  close  iip  tight  against  the  mortised  piece. 

In  an  end-laji  halved  joint.  Fig.  265,  No.  IT,  p.  178,  the  edges 
should  meet  all  around;  if  they  are  to  he  glued  together,  they  should 
not  be  undercut  or  they  will  not  glne  well. 

In  matched  tlooring.  the  underside  of  the  hoards  is  sliglitly  nar- 
rower than  the  upper  side  so  that  the  joint  nuiy  close  on  the  upper 
side  without  fail.  Fig.  301,  p.  199.  The  ends  of  tlooring  boards  are 
also  slightly  l)eveled  so  as  to  make  a  tight  fit  on  the  upper  side. 

7.  Select  the  sinijdest  form  of  joint  and  use  the  smallest  number 
of  abut niciits  [bearing  surfaces)  iiossible.  because  the  more  compli- 
cated the  joint  or  the  (/reater  the  number  of  hearing  surfaces,  the  less 
lil'elihood  there  is  of  a  sound  and  ine.r/ieusire  construction. 

Illustrations  of  this  juinciple  are  as  fo'lows:  I'sually  a  single 
mortise-and-tenon  joint  is  better  than  a  double  one  because  of  sim- 
plicity, strengtii  and  ease  of  making.  Where  mucli  surface  is  re- 
(piired  for  gluing,  a  double  one  may  be  bettei'. 

In  a  dovetail  dado.  Fig.  266,  Xo.  28.  p.  179,  it  is  usually  sufficient 
to  make  the  dovetail  on  one  side  only. 

]\Iany  very  elaborately  spliced  joints  have  been  devised,  which 
have  no  practical  advantage  over  the  simple  ones.  Fig.  264,  Xos.  4-7. 

p.     1  (   i  . 

A  butt  joint,  Fig.  264,  Xo.  11,  is  stronger  than  a  mitered  joint. 
Fig.  268,  Xo.  52,  in  a  box,  for  the  latter  is  almost  sure  to  shrink 
apart.  Where  appearance  is  important,  a  ledge  and  miter  joint  has 
the  advantage  of  both.  Fig.  2()S,  Xo.  .")S. 

8.  Keep  a  due  proportion  of  strength  betireen  the  fastenings 
{joints)  (Uid  the  pieces  fastened:  i.  e..  the  construction  sliould  neither 
be  frail  on  the  one  hand.  Iii'cause  the  pieces  of  irood  are  ireal'cned  l)if 
too  much  cutting,  nor  clumsi/  on  the  other  hand,  because  then  the 
fastoiings  irould  tie  i nordinatefi/  strong.  In  other  irords.  the  differ- 
ent /larts  should  be  eijualhi  strong. 


PRINCIPLKS   OF   JOINERY.  1^07 

Illustrations  of  this  ])rineiple  are  as  follows:  In  a  iislied  Joint, 
Fig.  264,  No.  2,  the  plate  should  he  attached  so  as  to  reinforce  the 
splice  at  the  weakest  point. 

In  a  scarf  joint,  Fig.  2(5-1:,  Xos.  5  and  T,  the  angle  should  he 
oblique  enough  to  give  the  greatest  leverage. 

In  a  tusk  tenon.  Fig.  267,  No.  40,  the  tenon  is  made  but  one- 
sixth  the  thickness  of  the  timber,  whereas  the  tusk  is  uuule  mucli 
larger. 

Where  a  mortise  is  to  l)e  cut  in  a  timber  bearing  weight,  it 
should  he  cut  in  the  neutral  axis,  where  the  cutting  of  fibres  will 
weaken  it  least. 

In  the  mortise-and-tenon  of  a  table-rail.  Fig.  267,  Xo.  43,  there 
sliou'd  be  a  wide  shoulder  above  the  tenon  of  the  rail  so  that  the 
top  of  the  leg  above  the  mortise  will  not  shear  out.  The  mortise 
should  be  as  near  tlie  outside  of  the  leg  as  possible  so  that  the  inner 
corner  of  the  leg  ma\-  remain  strong.  The  tenon  should  he  strong 
enough  to  share  the  strain  with  the  shoulders. 

A  dado  joint,  Fig.  266,  Xo.  25,  sluuild  not  be  so  deep  as  to 
weaken  the  supporting  board. 

A  tenon  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  weaken  the  mortised  ])iL'ce. 

Pins  or  other  fastenings.  Fig.  267,  Xos.  38  and  39,  nuiy  weaken 
rather  than  strengthen  a  joint  if  they  are  so  placed  or  are  so  large 
as  to  shear  or  crush  tlieir  way  thru  the  timber. 

9.  Place  each  ahniiing  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearlij  as  posf^ihJe  per- 
penclicukir  to  the  pres.^iire  which  it  has  to  transmit. 

Illustrations  of  this  |)rinciple  are  as  follows:  the  angle  in  a  strut 
joint.  Fig.  266,  Xo.  (52,  should  be  eciual'y  divided  between  the  two 
beams. 

The  thrust  joint.  Fig.  268,  Xo.  ()3.  in  a  bridge  truss,  is  exactly 
at  right  angles  to  the  pressure. 

It  is  on  account  of  this  princijjle  that  a  spliced  joint  for  com- 
pression. Fig.  264,  Xo.  4.  is  different  from  a  spliced  joint  for  ten- 
sion, Xo.  5  :  and  that  a  housed  braced  joint.  Fig.  269,  Xo.  G(\,  is 
better  than  a  plain  braced  joint,  Xo.  65. 

A  joint  to  resist  vertical  cross  strain  is  stronger  when  sea i  fed  ver- 
tical Iv  than  horizontallv. 


208  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    JOINERY 


Kkkerexces:* 

Goss.  p.  132.  Rivington,  Vol.  I.  p.  57. 

Adams,  p.   12. 


'For  general  l)il)lioiirii])hy  see  p.  4. 


Chapter  X. 
WOOD  FIXISHING. 

STAINS. 

The  function  of  stains  is  to  change  the  color,  and  to  enchance 
the  grain  and  texture  of  the  Avood.  Stains  may  be  divided  into 
four  general  classes,  which  are  not,  however,  entirely  distinct. 
(1)  Oil  stains,  (3)  Water  stains,  (a)  made  from  anilines,  (b)  made 
from  dyes  other  than  anilines,  (3)  Spirit  stains,  (4)  Stains  due  to 
chemical  changes. 

(1)  Oil  stains.  Advantages:  they  are  easily  prepared,  are  easy  to 
apply  evenly,  and  they  do  not  raise  the  grain.  Disadvantages :  they 
cover  the  grain  somewhat,  are  apt  to  give  a  muddy  effect,  they  do  not 
penetrate  very  deeply  into  the  wood,  and  it  is  impossible  to  stain 
hard  wood  dark  with  them  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  grain  and 
texture  of  the  wood  clear.  A  convenient  form  in  which  to  handle 
these  pigments  is  Devoe's  "coach  colors,"'  ground  in  japan.  To  pre- 
vent evaporation  from  cans  once  opened,  it  is  well  to  keep  them  partly 
filled  with  water  and  the  water  covered  with  a  little  oil.  For  use,  the 
pigments  are  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  pound  of  color  to  one-half  gallon  of  turpentine  or  benzine.  Ben- 
zine is  much  cheaper  than  turpentine,  but  evaporates  more  quickly. 
The  addition  of  a  little  boiled  oil  gives  a  body  to  the  stain,  so  that 
when  the  wood  is  well  rubl)ed  down  a  soft  lustre  can  be  had  without 
any  further  finish.  The  stain  should  be  applied  with  a  brush  to  the 
wood,  which  may  then  be  rubbed  clean  with  cotton  waste.  Oil  stains 
penetrate  hard  woods  better  when  the  wood  has  first  been  fumed  in 
ammonia.  (See  below,  p.  31f).  Or.  the  addition  of  a  little  ammonia 
to  the  stain  just  before  applying  aids  it  in  penetrating  the  wood. 

The  pigments  most  used  for  oil  stains  are:  burnt  and  raw  umber, 
burnt  and  raw  sienna,  Yandvke  brown,  dro]i  l)lack.  and  medium 
chrome  yellow.  These  colors  may  be  varied  by  mixing.  For  ex- 
ample, for  a  green  stain,  take  two  parts  of  drop  black  and  one  part 
of   medium    chrome   yellow,   and    dissolve   in   turpentine   or   benzine. 

209 


210  llANDWOL'K    JN    WOOD. 

The  addition  ul'  a  litlk'  vciinilioii  i;ives  a  giaycr  iiiuen.  The  green 
may  be  made  bluer  liv  tlie  addition  of  I'mssian  bhie.  but  the  blue  al- 
ready contained  in  the  blaclv  gives  a  soft,  pleasant  green. 

For  antique  oak,  add  a  triiie  of  bui'nt  undjer  and  black  to  raw 
sienna  thinned  to  the  right  consistency. 

For  a  reddish  brown,  tliin  buint  \niil)er  to  the  right  consistency. 
This  may  lie  grayed  hy  the  addition  of  a   little  gieen. 

A  walnid  stain  may  l)e  had  by  adding  a  little  Venetian  red  to 
asplialtuni,  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine. 

AniUiK:  oil  .s7^//'//.s.  Advantages:  the  cidors  are  clear  and  easily 
obtainable.  ])isadvantages :  the  colois  aie  likely  to  he  crude  and  too 
bright,  and  unless  gieat  care  is  taken  the  tones  are  metallic  and  not 
.M)ri  enough  to  suit  wood.  It  is  necessary  to  purchase  colors  soluble 
in  oil.  'J'lu'se  lan  he  had  of  William  Zinnst'r  and  Company,  1!)7 
William  Street,  New  Yoik.  Four  colors  are  necessaiy  to  get  the  de- 
sired shades,  Bismarck  brown,  dark  yellow,  dark  lilue,  and  black.  Bis- 
marck brown  comes  in  powdered  form  at  $"^.4(»  per  II).,  dark  yellow 
comes  in  powdeied  form  at  $2.40  per  II).,  dark  blue  comes  in  lumps 
at  $3. '20  ]n'V  lb.,  black  comes  in  lum])s  at  $2.-l()  per  lb.  These  may 
be  dissolved  in  Ihiee  ounces  of  turpentine  to  one  ounce  of  boiled  oil,, 
to  one  teaspooiiful  of  cojoi-,  a  |)rocess  that  will  take  place  much  faster 
if  the  mixtui'c  is  heateil.  (ireat  care  must  he  taken,  liowever,  noi 
to  set  lli'e  to  the  t  III  peiitine.  Wlien  cool,  thin  with  tur])entine  to  the 
proper  consistency,  ap})ly  to  the  wood  with  a  brush  and  rul)  clean 
with  cotton   waste. 

(2)  Wilier  ,'<liiiit.'<.  Advantages:  they  are  cheap  and  clear  and 
do  not  obscui'e  the  grain  as  oil  stains  aie  likely  to  do,  and  they  pene- 
trate dee])ly  into  the  wood,  espt'cially  when  applied  liot.  They  may  bt 
made  of  an\-  coloiing  matter  that  is  soluble  in  water,  and  are  j)ar- 
ticularlv  good  for  hard  woods  and  for  use  in  large  (piantities.  Tt  is 
possible  to  stain  wood  ]nuch  (hii'ker  with  them  than  with  oil  stains. 
]\Ioreover,  the  brushes  used  with  them  are  easily  taken  care  of.  Dis- 
advantages: thi'y  are  ditlicult  to  jirepaie  and  they  raise  the  giain  of 
the  wood.  The  foimer  disadvantage  may  he  overconu'  by  liuying 
tliem  all  ]uepared. 

The  dilhciilty  of  the  raising  of  the  grain  is  to  be  obviated  either 
by  wa^hing  the  wood  in  watei'  and.  wlu'ii  dry,  rubbing  down  with 
sand])aper  before  applying  the  stain,  or  rubiiiug  down  after  staining 
and   re-staining  when    iieeessarv. 


WOOD   FINISHING.  211 

a.  Water  stains  made  from  anilines.  Aniline  stains  are  likely 
to  fade,  but  the  addition  of  a  little  vinegar  is  said  to  hinder  fading. 
For  ^lahogaiiA',  dissolve  1  oz.  Bismarck  brown  in  3  quarts  of  boiling 
water.     Use  when  cool. 

b.  Water  stains  made  from  dyes  other  than  anilines.  The  num- 
ber of  these  is  legion;  some  of  the  simpler  are  given. 

Eeddish  Brown.  Dissolve  extract  of  logwood  of  the  size  of  a  wal- 
nut in  y2  cup  (-i  oz.)  of  hot  water.  Apply  hot  to  wood  repeatedly 
until  desired  color  is  obtained. 

Black.  Dissolve  extract  of  logwood  of  the  size  of  a  walnut 
in  Yi  cup  (4  oz.)  of  boiling  water.  Add  a  teaspoonful  of  alum. 
Apply  repeatedly  until  the  wood  is  dark  brown.  Prepare  acetate 
of  iron  according  to  directions  for  making  dark  brown,  on  next  page. 
Apply  this  to  wood  already  browned  with  logwood.  If  the  grain 
is  raised,  sandpaper  lightly,  or  rub  with  steel  wool  and  then  with 
boiled  oil. 

(3)  Spirit  Stains.  These  are  expensive  and  hence  little  used.  A 
few  illustrations  are  given.'' 

Black.  Aniline  black,  cut  in  alcohol,  gives  a  bluish  etfect  but  if 
the  wood  thus  stained  is  rubbed  with  raw  linseed  oil,  it  become^;  black. 

Another  Black.  Dissolve  extract  of  logwood  in  wood  alcohol.  De- 
velop the  color  by  going  over  the  work  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron. 

Golden  Oak.  Dissolve  asphaltum  in  naphtha  until  it  is  as  thin 
as  water  and  makes  a  yellowish  stain ;  or  to  equal  parts  of  asphaltum, 
varnish,  and  gold  size  japan,  add  enough  turpentine  to  thin  to  propei 
consistency. 

Mahogany.     Dissolve  Bismarck  Brown  in  alcohol. 

Aniline  stains  may  be  cut  in  alcohol  and  mixed  with  equal  parts 
of  white  shellac  and  banana  oil  (amyl  acetate)  and  all  applied  in 
one  coat. 

(4)  Stains  due  to  cheinical  changes.  Certain  substances  like  am- 
monia, potassium  bichromate,  and  acetate  of  iron,  give  chemical  re- 
actions on  certain  woods  and  make  very  effective  and  inexpensive 
stains.  Moreover  the  artistic  effect  of  some  of  them  is  unexcelled. 
When  applied  in  solution  they  are  likely  to  raise  the  grain. 

The  eff'ect  of  ammonia,  either  the  liquid  or  fumes,  is  much  the 
same  as  the  effect  produced  by  aging  or  weathering.  Ammonia  also 
cuts  the  pith  rays  of  oak  and  makes  it  possible  for  other  stains  to 

'*For  detailed  directions  for  treatment  of  different  woods,  see  Hodg- 
son, pp   112-153. 


'21-  IIAXDWURK   IN     WOOD. 

take  hold.  For  this  reason  it  is  much  used  as  a  preliminary  treat- 
ment for  oak  finishes.  The  color  effect  is  to  lessen  the  yellow  and 
increase  the  gray. 

Tlie  method  of  application  is  simply  to  expose  the  wood  for  a 
day  or  more  to  the  fumes  of  strong  ammonia  (28%)  in  a  tightly 
closed  box.  If  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  moistened  with  water  just 
before  exposure,  it  turns  darker  than  if  exposed  dry.  The  stain 
penetrates  so  deeply  that  it  uuiy  be  sandpapered  after  the  exposure 
without  harm.  After  fuming  and  sandpapering  the  surface  should 
be  oiled  to  prevent  finger  marks. 

Dark  l)rown  for  chostnut.  or  oak.  oi-  mahogany.  This  is  obtained 
witli  a  sdlution  of  acetate  of  iron,  iiiaile  as  follows:  digest  one  part 
by  measure  of  iron  dust  in  8  parts  of  glacial  acetic  acid.  After  the 
chemical  action  is  well  started,  add  several  times  as  much  water 
to  keep  the  mixture  liquid.  When  the  chemical  action  has  ceased,  the 
stain  is  ready  for  use.  If  a  lighter  sliade  is  desired  it  may  be  still 
further   diluted. 

To  darken  mahogany.  Make  a  saturate  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash.  Dilute  a  portion  of  it  with  water  ^,  or  yi ,  or  ^,  or  in  any 
proportion  according  to  the  darkness  required.  One  part  of  the  solu- 
tion to  two  or  three  ])arts  of  water  gives  a  good  color.  Apply  the 
solution  to  mahogany  with  a  brush.  This  solution  alone  is  likely  to 
be  too  brown.  I'he  reddish  tinge  of  the  wood  may  be  saved  by  mix- 
ing as  follows : 

100%    solution  of  l)ichromate  of  potash....!   pai't 

Rreinig's  mahogany  water  stain    1   ])art 

Water    2  parts 

Apply  with  a   hiusli  and  wipe  oil'  the  surplus. 
Bichromate  of  potash  on  oak  gives  a  rich  brown. 
Bichromate  of  potash  on  ash  gives  a  rich  red. 
Bichromate  of  potash  on  black  walnut  gives  a  dark  brown. 
A    decoction    of    logwood    treated    with    tannin    gives    yellow    red, 
with  sugar  of  lead  gives  gray  brown,  with  fi'rric  nitrate  gives  black. 
A   decoction   of   fustic   extract   treated    with    dilute   nitric   acid  gives 
l)rown,  etc." 


"For  other  clVcets  ohtaiiU'd  hy  cliciiiical  cliaiijics.  see  tahlc  on  pp.  185- 
180  in  Brannt's  Painter,  (lihler  <inil  \(iniis]irr.  and  also  Woodcraft  !):71, 
June.  '08. 


WOOD  Fiis'isiriNG.  213 

CoiiiiHcrcial  Stains.  Some  of  the  more  noteworthy  commercial 
stains,  suitable  for  school  use,  are  those  of: 

The  Bridgeport  Wood  Finishing  Company,  55  Fulton  St.,  New- 
York.  Among  their  water  stains  some  of  the  best  are :  Flemish  oak, 
Aveathered  oak.  walnut,  silver  gray,  forest  green,  and  mahogany,  es- 
pecially if  the  latter  is  modified  with  bichromate  of  potash.  Othei 
effects  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  these,  as  forest  green,  which  is  too 
briglit  alone,  mixed  with  walnut  or  some  other  reddish  color  gives 
a  grayish  green.  Of  the  penetrating  oil  stains  the  golden  oak  and 
mahogany  are  very  good. 

The  Sherwin  Williams  Company,  of  Cleveland,  Xewark,  Chicago, 
etc..  produce  a  fine  line  of  spirit  stains. 

The  Adams  and  Elting  Company,  Chicago,  have  a  stain  called 
ade:ite,  in  which  banana  oil  appeals  to  be  the  solvent.  It  is  very 
easy  of  ap]ilication.  only  one  coat  being  needed.  It  is  applied  with 
the  brush. 

Berry  Brothers,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  the  famous  varnish  makers, 
furnish  a  great  variety  of  colors  in  their  water  stains  and  also  a  com- 
bined stain  and  finish  under  the  trade  name  of  Lacklustre. 

Devoe  and  Eeynolds.  101  Fulton  Street,  M'ew  York,  make  a  var- 
iety of  oil  stains  which  can  be  applied  either  in  one  coat  with  a  brush 
or  rubbed  in  with  cotton  waste. 

The  Chicago  Varnish  Company,  make  a  specialty  of  artistic  chem- 
ical stains,  but  unfortunately  they  are  not  yet  (1910)  available  in 
small  quantities. 

S;.  C.  Johnson  and  Son,  Eacine,  Wis.,  furnish  a  variety  of  spirit 
stains  called  "wood  dyes."' 

The  Craftsman  Workshops,  Eastwood,  X.  Y..  furnish  oil  stains  to 
be  applied  with  a  brush  or  waste.  These  are  deservedly  famous  foi 
they  give  especially  soft,  agreeable  efl'ects  on  fumed  oak. 

In  general,  it  should  be  remembered  that  oil  stains  are  better  for 
soft  woods,  water  stains  for  hard  woods,  and  the  spirit  stains  are  good 
for  both.  But  without  a  sense  of  color,  no  number  of  recipes  will 
avail. 

riLLixo 

The  object  of  filling  is  to  give  a  perfectly  level  and  ncm-absorbenl 
basis  for  varnish  covering  or  other  finish.  This  can  be  done  with 
shellac  carefully  rubbed  down  with  fine  oiled  sandpaper,  but  this 
method  requires  much  toil  and  patience,  and  has  therefore  been  given 


214  HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 

up  by  fuiniture  iinislieis.  The  best  fillers,  (such  as  "Wheeler's  Wood 
filler"),"  are  made  of  silex  in  needle-shaped  particles  mixed  with 
raw  linseed  oil,  japaii  and  turpentine.  When  applied  to  wood  it 
should  be  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine,  and  applied  with  a 
brush  along  the  grain.  As  it  dries,  the  color  becomes  grayish  and  it 
should  then  be  rubbed  oft'  acio-s  the  grain  with  fine  shavings  or  cot- 
ton waste.  It  is  best  to  have  fillers  of  several  colors  on  hand,  such 
as  light,  black,  mahogany,  and  "golden  oak"  to  be  used  according 
to  the  stain  applied.  The  filler  slioidd  he  applied  after  staining  the 
wood  and  should  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroly.  say  foi'ty-eight  liouis,  be- 
fore it  is  covered  with  shellac  or  varnish.  Its  use  is  more  necessary 
on  open  grained  woods,  like  oak.  chestnut,  and  mahogany,  than  on 
close  grained  woods,  lil<e  whitewoocK  ma])le,  and  pine,  but  it  is  best 
to  use  it  on  all  woods  that  are  to  l)e  highly  polished. 

Cans  should  be  kt'pt  tightly  covered  when  not  in  nse.  Since  oil 
darkens  wood,  if  wood  is  to  he  k'e])t  light,  a  filler  without  oil,  as  whit- 
ing and  turpentine,  should  l)e  Wi^vi]. 

I'OLISIIKS 

1  There  aie  three  ])iincipal  forms  of  wood  polishes,  each  of  which 
has  its  virtues  and  defects.  They  are:  (a)  oil,  (b)  wax,  (c)  the 
varnishes. 

(a)  Oil.  The  gieat  advantage  of  oil  jiolishing  is  its  permanence. 
It  will  stand  both  wetting  and  wai'inth  and  gives  a  dull,  glossy 
finish.  Ill  some  woods,  as  sweet  gum  and  mahogany,  it  In'ings  up  the 
figure. 

Process.  Apply  either  raw  or  boiled  linseed  oil  diluted  with  five 
parts  of  benzine  or  turpentine.  The  advantages  of  dilution  aic  that 
the  mixture  penetrates  the  wood  better,  leaves  a  thinrrer  film  on  the 
surface  and  is  more  economical.  Then  nib,  luh,  I'ub,  day  aftei'  (hiy. 
I.ittle  and  often  with  unlimited  friction,  is  the  best  rule.  This  makes 
a  nice  finish  for  well-fumed  chestnut,  turning  the  color  to  a  rich 
brown. 

j  (b)    ]V<i.r.     Wax  is  an  old   p]nglish  polish,  commonly  irsed  before 

French  ]>olish  and  varnish  were  introduced,  especially  for  hard  woods 
like  oak.  Its  advarrtages  are  that  it  is  chea]),  easily  prepared,  easily 
applied,  and  easily  !'e|taired.  lis  disadvantages  are  that  it  will  not 
stand  wetting,  is  easily  marred,  recpiiics  constant  care,  is  rrot  so  hard 

"Made  hy  tlic   Bridgeport   Wood  Finisliiii^r  (•„.,  155  Fnlton  St..  X.  Y. 


WOOD   FINISHING.  215 

and  dry  as  varnish,  turns  slightly  sticky  with  warmth,  and  is  likely  to 
turn  white  in  devices. 

To  prepare  it.  To  one  part  of  melted  beeswax  add  one  part  of  tur- 
pentine. Mix  and  cool.  It  can  be  bought  prepared,  as,  Bridgeport 
Wood  Finishing  Company's  "Old  Dutch  Finish,"  Butcher's  Wax, 
Johnson's  Wax,  and  others. 

Process.  Kub  the  wax  evenly  over  the  suiface  with  a  stiff  brush 
or  the  fingers.  Let  it  dry  for  some  hours,  and  then  rub  with  a  cloth; 
flannel  or  a  piece  of  felt  is  best.  Put  on  several  coats,  leaving  the 
work  over  night  between  coats.     Eub  often  with  a  warm  cloth. 

(c)  Varnishes.  The  function  of  varnishes  is  to  covei-  wood  with 
a  hard,  transparent  coating  that  is  non-porous  and  im])ei'vious  to 
moisture.  There  is  a  great  range  among  them,  from  thin,  easily  worn, 
dull  finishes  to  durable,  strong,  and  highly  polished  coatings  called 
"rubbing  varnishes."  The  polished  suiface  can  be  secured  on'y  by 
much  labor  thru  the  application  of  successive  thin  coats  of  good  var- 
nish, carefully  rubbed  down. 

Varnish  nuiy  be  applied  to  wood,  stained,  painted,  or  in  its  natural 
condition  as  well  as  to  meta',  leather,  i)aper,  and  various  other  sub- 
stances. A  good  varnish  should  ))e  adhesive,  that  is,  it  should  cling 
iirmly  to  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied;  it  should  be  elastic,  so 
as  not  to  crack  on  account  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
material  to  which  it  is  applied;  it  should  dry  in  a  reasonable  time; 
it  should  be  limpid  so  as  to  flow  easily  in  a^jplication ;  it  should  b(> 
transparent  and  brilliant  when  ])olished  ;  and  it  should  be  durable. 
The  necessaiy  conditions  for  all  good  varnishing  are  a  perfectly 
smooth,  even,  filled  suiface  of  dry  wood,  a  tem]ierature  of  aliout  70"^ 
and  no  dust  in-  the  air. 

In  general,  there  are  two  classes  of  varnish,  Ijased  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  solvent,  (1)  Spirit  varnishes  and  (2)  Oil  varnishes. 

( 1 )  S])irit  varnishes  are  sometimes  made  with  copal  resins  dis- 
solved in  some  spirit,  as  one  of  the  alcohols,  benzine,  acetone,  etc. 
They  dry  with  great  rapidity  owing  to  the  volatilization  of  the  sol- 
vent spirit,  leaving  a  coat  of  pure  resin  of  great  hardness  and  brilli- 
ance, but  one  which  is  likely  to  crack  and  scale  when  exposed.  They 
are  not  much  used.  Shellac  is  the  most  common  and  the  most  useful 
of  the  spirit  varnishes.  Its  basis  is  resin  lac,  a  compound  resinous 
sub-tance  exuded  from  an  East  India  scale  insect  (  darterin  lacca) 
found  mostly  in  tlie  province  of  Assam.     The  term  "lac"  is  the  same 


216  HANDWORK   IX    WOOD. 

as  *"laldi""  wliich  means  lUU.OOU  and  is  indicative  of  the  countless 
hosts  of  insects  which  are  the  source  from  wliii-h  this  gum  is  ob- 
tained. The  larval  insects  insert  their  proboscides  into  the  bark  of 
young  shoots  of  certain  lac-bearing  trees,  varieties  of  Ficus,  draw  out 
the  sap  for  nutriment,  and  at  once  exude  a  resinous  secretion  which 
entirely  covers  their  bodies  and  the  twigs,  often  to  the  thickness  of 
one-half  inch.  The  females  never  escape  and  after  impregnation  their 
ovaries  become  filled  with  a  red  fluid  which  forms  a  valuable  dye 
known  as  hic  dye.  The  encrusted  twigs  are  gathered  by  the  natives 
in  the  spring  and  again  in  the  autumn.  Iiefore  the  young  are  hatched, 
and  in  this  condition  the  product  is  known  as  "stick  lac."  After 
being  crushed  and  separated  from  the  twigs  and  washed  free  from 
the  coloring  matter  the  product  is  known  as  "seed  lac.'"  It  is  then 
melted  and  strained  and  spread  out  in  thin  layers  in  a  form  called 
"shell  lac.""  This  is  what  is  known  as  orange  shellac  in  the  market. 
It  may  be  bleached  by  boiling  in  caustic  potash,  and  passing  chlorine 
thru  it  until  the  resin  is  precipitated.  It  is  further  whitened  by 
l.'cing  pulled.  This  is  what  is  known  in  the  nuirket  as  "white  shellac.*" 
It  comes  in  lum]is.  Orange  shellac  is  the  stronger  and  is  less  likely 
to  deteriorate,  but  white  is  easier  to  a])ply  because  it  sets  less  rapidly. 
Another  advantage  of  the  white  is  its  colorlessness.  Shellac  is  solu- 
able  in  both  grain  alcohol  (ethyl  alcohol)  and  wood  alcohol  (methyl 
alc-ohol).  but  grain  alcohol  is  preferable.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  mix  even  a  droj)  of  water  in  it  or  it  will  curdle.  To  make 
])erfect  the  process  of  ordinary  filling,  shellac  may  be  used  as  a  filler 
either  by  itself  or  preparatory  to  other  processes.  Since  it  dries 
(piickly  it  can  l)e  rubbed  down  in  six  or  eiglit  hi>urs  either  with  Xo. 
<•()  sand-paper  oiled,  or  better,  with  Xo.  ()()  steel  wool.  This  jirocess 
wlicii  repeated  several  times  gives  a  good  "egg-shell""  finish.  It  may 
be  ajiplied  alone  over  stained  wood  or  the  shellac  itself  may  be  colored 
with  aniline  dyes  cut  in  alcohol.  This,  for  example,  is  an  easy  way  to 
get  a  black  finish. 

.\  good  watei-pi'oof  wood  polish  is  niadi,'  thus:  1  pint  aU-ohol. 
2  oz.  gum  benzoin,  V4  oz.  gum  sandarac,  ^4  oz.  gum  anime.  Put  in 
a  bottle,  and  put  the  bottle  in  a  hot  water  bath  until  all  solids  are  dis- 
solved. Stiain  and  aild  '4  gill  clear  poppy  oil.  Shake  well  and  apply 
with  cotton  cloth. 

.\  soft,  dull,  glossy  finish  may  l)e  ohtaiiieil  liv  apjilving  two  coats 
of  a  mi\tiii-e  of  one  part  each  of  white  shellac  and  banana  oil  (amyl 
acetate).     \\'lien  (h-y.  sandpaper  lightly  and  wax. 


WOOD   FINISHING. 


217 


French  poUsIiing.  The  finest  of  shellac  finishes  is  French  polish. 
It  is  a  thin,  clear,  permanent  finish,  bnt  the  process  takes  time  and 
patience.  It  is  not  nuich  used  in  practical  work,  because  of  the 
time  expense,  bnt  is  often  employed  in  school  shops,  because  only  a 
few  materials  are  necessary,  it  dries  quickly,  and  gives  a  beautiful 
finish.  The  polished  surface  is  obtained  by  adding  successive  thin 
coats  according  to  the  following  process: 

(1)  Preparation.  The  surface  of  the  wood  must  be  perfect'y 
smooth  and  even,  sandpapered  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  stained, 
if  desired,  filled,  rubbed  smooth  and  ipiitc  dry.  (2)  Applv  two  or 
three  thin  coats  of  shellac.  After  each  coat  when  dry,  rub  witli 
IsTo.  00  oiled  sandpaper  or  No.  00  steel  wool.  Wipe  thoro'y.  (3) 
Make  three  pads,  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  of  clean,  white,  cotton 
waste,  enclosed  in  some  fine  old  or  washed  cloth  with  no  sizinsf  or 
lint, — one  pad  for  shellac,  one  for  oil,  and  one  for  alcohol.  Fill  one 
pad  with  shellac  of  the  consistency  of  milk,  enough  in  the  pad  so  that 
when  squeezed  hard  it  will  ooze  out.  The  common  mistake  is  to  put 
too  much  shellac  into  the  pad.  Hub  with  circular  motion,  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  304,  never  letting 
the  pad  stop  on  the  surface. 
(4)  Sprinkle  a  very  little  finely 
powdered  pumicestone  and  put 
a  little  oil  on  the  surface  of  the 
wood  here  and  there  with  the 
ti])  of  a  finger.  Huh  with  sec- 
ond pad  until  surface  is  dull. 
Wipe  clean.  Eepeat  (3)  and 
( 4 )  several  times.  Some  use 
law  linse('<l  oil  to  prevent  stick- 
ing. Others  use  three  or  four 
cloth  coverings  on  the  shellac 
pad,  removing  the  outer  one  as 
it  dries.  A  simpler  w-ay  is  to  keep  the  shellac  in  ])ad,  1,  thin  by 
irioistening  with  a  little  alcohol.  (5)  Spiriting  ott'  (Follows  process 
4.)  Dampen  pad,  3,  with  very  little  alcohol  and  wipe  quickly  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain.  This  should  remove  the  circular  marks. 
Too  much  alcohol  in  this  third  pad  will  "burn"  a  dull  spot.  The 
rubbers  are  said  to  improve  with  use,  and  may  be  preserved  in  closely 
stoppered  Jars  to  prevent  evaporation.     The  different  kinds  of  pads 


Fig-.  304. 


Direction  of  the  Pad  in  French 
Polishing. 


'218  HANDWORK    IX    WOOD. 

should  he  ke])t  scpainte.  Or  thr  cotton  waste  may  he  thrown  away, 
and  llie  ehiths  washed  in  stron_i>-  hoiax  water.  In  the  process  just 
deserihed,  shel'ac  alone,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  is  used.  The  shellac 
may  be  used  with  other  ingredients :  for  example,  1  pint  grain  alco- 
hol, V4  oz.  gmn  coj)al.  ^4  oz.  gum  arahic.  1  oz.  shellac.  Strain 
through  muslin. 

Another  reci])e  for  finishing.  Tse  4  drains  grain  alcohol,  2  drams 
orange  shellac,  5  di'ams  tincture  of  henzoin,  1  teaspoonful  of  olive 
oil.     Dissolve  and  strain.     Apply  with  ])ad  in  direction  of  grain. 

Oil  or  Copal  Varnish('><.  The  old  Cremona  varnish  once  used  for 
violins  is  sup])ose(l  to  have  had  amljcr  ( (Ireek,  electron)  as  its  base. 
It  was  a  fossilized  coniferous  resin  found  on  the  shore  of  the  Baltic 
Sea.  The  ait  of  making  it  is  said  to  he  lost,  ])iobably  because  of 
the  difHculty  and  danger  of  melting  it.  ior  this  can  be  done  only  in 
oil  on  account  of  the  danger  of  ignition.  Hence  its  use  has  been 
abandoned. 

Peihaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  Nainislu's  is  !ac(pier.  much  used 
in  China  and  Japan.  It  is  made  from  the  juii'e  of  the  !ac(|uer  tree, 
(Rlhiis  ccniicifcrd  )  which  is  tapp(Ml  during  the  summer  months.  The 
juice  is  stiained  and  eva]»oia1('(l  and  then  mixe(l  with  various  sub- 
stances, such  as  oil,  tine  clay,  body  pigment,  and  metallic  dust,  accord- 
ing to  the  waie  fur  which  it  is  inteiidiMl.  The  uianuractui  ing  secrets 
are  carefully  guarded.  The  a]iplicati(in  of  it  is  vcvv  difficult,  the  sap 
of  young  trees  being  used  for  first  coats,  and  of  o'd  trees  for  the 
finishing  coats.  It  must  be  dried  in  a  dam}),  close  atmosphere.  For 
the  best  work  ten  or  twelve  coats  are  elaborately  rul^bed  down  and 
])olished.  Even  the  presence  of  it  is  very  ])oisonous  to  some  people 
;;nd  all  workers  in  it  are  more  or  less  affecte(l. 

I'lie  solvent  or  vihicle  of  tin-  moilein  copal  \ainislics  consists 
principal'y  of  linseed  oil  with  some  tuipentine.  Their  base  is  (Vipal. 
a  fossil,  resinous  substance  of  \-egetable  oiigin.  Tbi'  gums  of  which 
they  are  made  have  been  t-bemicallv  altere(|  bv  long  exposure  in  the 
eartli.  Other  gums,  as  mastic,  dammar,  sandaiac.  and  even  resin  are 
sometimes  mixed  with  copal  to  cheapen  the  pioduct  oi'  to  cause  more 
rapid  drying.  Coi  al  is  a  geiiei'ic  name  given  oi'iginallv  to  a'l  fossil 
resins.  Co[)als,  as  they  are  called,  come  fi'om  Xew  Zealand,  Mozam- 
hi(pie,  Zanzibar.  West  Afi'ica.  I)iazil.  and  the  rhili))i)ine<.  The  best 
of  tile  Copals  is  said  to  he  the  Kauri  gum.  oiiginallv  exuded  from 
the    Kaui'i   pine  ti'ee  of   New  Zealand.     'I'he  tree  is  still   existent  and 


AVOOD   FINISHING.  219 

produces  a  soft,  spongy  sap,  but  the  resin  used  in  varnish  is  dug  up 
from,  a  few  feet  under  ground  in  regions  where  there  are  now  no 
trees.  A  commercially  important  copal  and  one  noted  for  its  hard- 
ness is  the  Zanzibar  or  East  African  Copal.  It  is  found  imbedded 
in  the  earth  at  a  depth  not  greater  than  four  feet  over  a  wide  belt 
of  the  mainland  coast  of  Zanzibar,  on  tracts  wheie  not  a  single  tree 
now  grows.  It  occurs  in  lumps  from  the  size  of  small  pebbles  to 
pieces  weighing  four  or  five  p(ninds.  The  supply  is  said  to  be  prac- 
tically inexhaustil)l('. 

As  to  the  maniifactiiu'  of  the  Copal  varnishes:  hrst  of  all,  a  high 
grade  oil  is  boiled  at  a  high  temperature,  with  different  materials  to 
oxidize  it ;  for  instance,  red  lead  or  oxide  of  manganese.  The  heat 
throws  oif  the  oxygen  from  the  red  lead  or  manganese.  The  oxygen 
is  absorbed  by  the  linseed  oil.  which  is  then  put  away  to  settle  and 
age.  When  a  batch  of  vainish  is  nuule,  the  gums  are  melted  in  a 
large  kettle  and  then  the  requisite  amount  of  oil  is  added  and  these 
carefully  boiled  together.  This  is  removed  I'lnm  the  tire  and  cooled 
down  to  a  point  where  turpentine  can  be  added  without  volatilizing. 
These  are  thoroly  urixed  and  then  filtered  under  pressure  and  tanked 
and  aged.  The  different  grades  of  varnish  depend  upon  the  tieatment 
of  the  oil,  the  proportion  of  oil  and  turpentine,  the  qualities  of  the 
gums,  the  aging,  etc.  Some  by  rubbing  give  a  very  high  polish,  some 
give  a  dull  waxy  finish,  some  are  for  out-of-door  use,  as  Spar  varnish 
and  carriage  varnish,  some  are  for  floois,  some  for  funiture.  some  are 
high  priced,  some  are  cheap. 

Process  of  A'arnishing.  The  preliminary  processes  are  the  same 
as  those  for  applying  shellac,  i.  e.,  the  suiface  of  the  wood  must  be 
perfectly  even  and  smooth,  and  the  staining,  filling,  and  drying  com- 
plete. Quick  drying  varnishes,  like  shellac,  are  applied,  with  but 
little  on  the  brush.  The  heavy,  high  lustre  varnishes,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  applied  with  the  brush  full  so  that  the  varnish  may  even 
drip  off  the  work.  Then  proceed  as  follows:  Wipe  off  from  the 
work  the  extia  vainish  with  the  brush  and  clean  the  hiush  on  the 
edge  of  the  cup.  Eepeat  till  the  varnish  is  flowed  over  the  work 
evenly.  Be  particularly  careful,  in  that  res])ect,  of  edges  and  corners. 
S,et  to  dry  in  a  dustless  place.  When  dry  and  hard  repeat  the  process 
from  three  to  six  times.  Each  coat  must  dry  thoroly  before  the  next 
coat  is  applied. 


220  llAXDWOKK    IX    WOOD. 

\'a]-]iish  jxilisliing  consists  in  rubbing  off'  the  varnish,  not  in  rnb- 
bing  it  on,  as  in  Frwith  polishing.  To  polish  varnisli,  I'ub  with  a  felt 
pad,  powdered  pumice-stone  and  water.  Enb  till  the  surface  is  smooth, 
unpitted  and  even,  being  careful  not  to  rub  thru  the  edges.  Wipe 
clean  witli  a  wet  sponge  and  chamois  skin.  This  gives  a  dull  or  "egg- 
sliell"'  linisli.  For  polishing  varnish,  a.  simple  method  is  to  rub  with 
a  lotary  motion,  using  a  mixture  of  yj  sweet  oil  or  cottonseed  oil, 
and  ^  alcohol. 

.V  more  laborious  process  is  as  follows:  After  rnljbing  to  a  dull 
tiiiisli,  rub  ground  rotten  stone  and  water  with  cliamois  skin  in  a  cir- 
cular motion.  Let  the  rotten  stone  di'v  on  the  surface.  Then  wipe 
oif  with  the  naked  hand.  I'ubbing  in  a  circular  direction  and  wiping 
the  hand  every  time  after  passing  over  the  work.  This  looks  simple, 
but  is  really  a  fine  art.  Tliese  processes  have  practically  replaced 
French  ])olishing  in  the  trade. 

PAINTING 

Paints  are  used  for  the  same  ])urpose  as  other  finishes,  with  the 
i'dditional  one  of  giving  an  o])aque  colored  covering.  The  materials 
used  are : 

1.  A  body  whose  function  is  to  give  covering  ])ower.  This  is 
usmilly  wliite  lead,  Imt  it  is  often  adultei'ated  with  zinc  oxide;  2. 
Pigments;  3.  Linseed  oils,  raw  and  boiled,  which  are  used  to  give 
consistency,  adhesiveness  and  also  elasticity  to  the  coat  when  dry. 
For  outdoor  work  boiled  oil  is  used  and  foi-  indoor  work,  raw  oil; 
4.  Turpentine,  which  is  used  to  thin  out  the  paint  and  to  make  it 
dry  more  quickly. 

The  common  method  of  painting  is:  L  Set  anv  nails  with  nail- 
set:  "3.  Sandpapei':  3.  Shellac  the  knots:  4.  Prime  with  a  thin  coat 
of  |iaint.  mostly  white  lead,  (that  is,  little  color,)  boiled  oil.  and 
lur])entine  (the  ])ro|)ortion  of  drying  oil  is  greater  than  in  ordinarv 
iiaint)  :  5.  Putty  uj)  cracks,  nail  holes,  etc.:  (i.  Sandpaper  if  a  small 
nice  job:  7.  Then  ])aint  two  oi-  three  coats  with  paint  thick  enough 
so  it  will  not  run.  with  long.  evt'U  strokes  with  the  grain.  The  order 
of  painting  a  door  is,  panels,  muntins,  rails,  and  last,  stiles. 

For  inside  work  use  half  as  much  turpentine  as  oil.  This  gives  a. 
(hdl  finish.  For  outside  woi'k.  where  lusti'e  is  wanted,  little  or  no 
turftentine  is  used. 


WOOD   FINISHING.  221 

Tliis  is  the  old  way,  and  is  still  used  for  all  common  work.  But 
for  fine  painting,  as  carriage  work,  a  filler  is  now  used  first,  because  a 
priming  to  be  durable  should  unite  with  the  wood,  gras-ping  the 
fibers  and  filling  the  pores,  so  that  after  coats  cannot  sink  in.  The 
object  is  to  cement  the  surface.  Priming  is  often  called  "rough 
suifi'."  The  old  way  did  not  do  this,  with  the  result  that  the  oil  sep- 
srated  from  the  lead  and  kept  soaking  into  the  wood.  The  principal 
makers  of  paints  now  recommend  a  filler  before  any  white  lead  is 
added. 

TOOLS  AND   MATERIALS   FOR  WOOD  FINISHING 

Brushes.  It  is  well  to  have  several  varieties  to  help  keep  them 
distinct.  For  varnish  and  shellac,  the  best  are  those  with  the  bristles 
set  in  hard  rubber.  For  ordinary  purposes,  brushes  one  inch  wide 
are  satisfactory.  For  stains,  cheap,  tin-bound  brushes  are  good 
enough,  and  are  easily  replaced. 

Cups.  Half-pint  enameled  steel  cups  are  cheap,  satisfactory,  and 
easily  kept  clean.  For  the  care  of  cups  and  brushes,  see  Chapter  VI, 
The  Equipment  and  Care  of  the  Shop. 

Steel  wool.  This  consists  of  shavings,  turned  from  thin  steel 
discs  set  together  in  a  lathe.  It  comes  in  various  grades,  No.  00  to 
No.  3.     The  finest,  No.  00,  is  coarse  enough  for  ordinary  purposes. 

Sandpaper.  Use  No.  00  smeared  with  boiled  oil.  Pulverized 
pumice  stone  and  pulverized  rotten  stone,  both  very  fine,  are  used  to 
rub  down  inequalities  and  to  give  a  dull  finish  to  shellac  or  varnish. 
Use  with  oil  on  shellac  and  with  oil  or  water  on  copal  varnish.  Horse- 
hair and  soft  wood  shavings  are  often  used  to  rub  down  varnish. 
French  felt,  medium  hard,  is  used  for  rubbing  down  copal  varnish 
with  pumice  stone. 

Cotton  waste  is  the  cheapest  available  material  for  wiping. 

Cheese  cloth  is  better  for  some  purposes,  but  more  expensive. 

Soft  cloth  without  lint  is  necessary  for  French  polishing.  '^Berke- 
ley  muslin,'^  "Old  Glory,"  and  "Lilly  White"  are  trade  names.  A 
fine  quality  is  necessary.  The  starch  should  be  washed  out  and  the 
cloth  dried  before  using,  and  then  torn  into  little  pieces,  say  4"  square. 

Fillers  consist  of  silex  or  of  ground  earths  mixed  with  oil,  japan, 
and  turpentine.  Their  object  is  to  give  a  perfectly  level  and  non- 
absorbent  basis  for  varnish  covering. 

Oils.  Eaw  linseed  oil  is  very  fat  and  dries  slowly.  It  is  used  for 
interior  work. 


222  IIANUWOKK    JX    WOOD. 

Boiled  oil  is  linseed  oil  boiled  with  lithai\ue  (I'bO)  and  white 
vitriol,  which  removes  nuieli  of  the  fatty  ingredient  and  gives  it  dry- 
ing quality. 

Turpentine  is  a  volatile  oil  fioni  the  sap  of  long-leaf  ])ine.  Jt  is 
mixed  with  oil  in  painting  to  give  further  drying  qualities. 

Benzine  is  a  cheap  substitute  for  turpentine.  It  is  a  liighly  in- 
fjammable  product  of  coal  tar  and  evaporates  quickly. 

Drier. is  an  oil  in  which  resin  has  been  dissolved.  It  is  mixed 
with  varnishes  and  paint  to  make  them  dry  quickly.  It  is  also  some- 
times used  as  a  varnish  itself. 

Japan  is  a  varnish-like  li(juid  made  of  shellac  or  other  resin,  lin- 
seed oil,  metallic  oxides,  and  turpentine.  It  is  used  as  a  medium  in 
V  hich  to  giind  colors  and  as  a  drier. 


WOOD   FIN1SIII2^G.  223 


WOOD   FINISHING 


Referexces : * 

( 1 )  Stains. 

Hodgson,    II,   pp.   2.J-59,  Maire.  pp.  4G-64. 

1.55-164. 
Van  Deusen,  Man.  Tr.  Mag., 

G:   93. 

(2)  Fillers. 

Hodgson,   II,   pp.   7-25.  Maire,  65-72. 

(3)  Oil    Finisli. 

Hodgson,  II,  pp.  99-103.  Maire.  p.  117. 

(4)  Wax. 

Hodgson.  II,  pp.  93-99.  Maire.   pp.    112-116. 

(5)  Varnish. 
Shellac. 

Maire,   pp.   73-80,    101-111.  Hodgson,   II.   pp.   6G-93. 

Journal,  8oc.  Arts,  49:    192.  Inter.  Encyc,   Vol.   X,   "Lao." 
Ency.  Brit.,  Vol.  XIV,  "Lac." 
Oil   Varnish. 

Hodgson,   II,   pp.    5!)-r)6.  Maire.  pp.   81-100. 

Clark,   pp.   1-09.  Enci/.  Brit.,  Vol.  XXIV,  "Varnish." 

(6)  Paints. 

Brannt,  p.  134-152.  .        Building    Trades   Fockefbook,    pp. 

357-360. 


For  detailed   directions   for  the  treatment   of  different   woods,   see  Hodg- 
son, II.  pp.   112-153,  Maire,  pp.   124-141. 

*For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


INDEX. 


Acorn  of  hinge,    131. 

Adjustment  of  plane,    70,   72. 

Adze,   88. 

Agacite   grinder,    61,    120,    121,   137. 

Alcohol: 

Grain    dOtliyl).    21 G. 
Wood     (Metliyl).    216. 
Alligator,    28. 
Ammonia,    209,    211. 
Angle    of    bevel,    58,    59. 
Aniline    stain.s: 
Alcohol,    211. 
Oil,    210. 
Water,    211. 
Antique    oak,    210. 
Anvil,    141. 

Arrangement    of    .'^hop,    142-144. 
Arris,    57,    184. 
Asphaltum,     210. 
Auger-bit,    53,    84,    85.    137,    140. 
Auger-bit-gage,    1 1  6. 
Ax,    10,    51,    87. 

Back-saw,    65.    136.    138. 

Balloon    frame.    201. 

Banana    f>il.    213.    216. 

Band-saw,    31. 

Banking   grounds.    16. 

Beam-compa=;s,    114. 

Beams,    201. 

Bench,    97-99,    136,     138,    141,    143. 
Glue   and    Stain,    142,    148. 

Bench-hook,    78,    102,    104,    137,    139. 

Bending   wood,    199. 

Benzine,     209,     210,     214,     222. 

Bevel   of  cutting   tools,    52,    55,    120. 

Bevel,   Sliding  T,    113,    137.   140. 

Bezel,    See   Bevel. 

Bill-hook,    10. 

Binding   of    saw,    6:!.    65. 

Bit.    Plane.    70.    77. 

Bits,    84-87.    i:!7.    140. 

Bit.    Twist.    S4.    S5. 

Bit-point    drill,    S4,    85. 

Bit-stock,    See    Brace. 

Black,   209,   211. 

Blank-hinge,    131. 

Blazes   on    trees.    7.   8. 

Blinds,    194. 


Block,    Corner,    155    No.    12,    177,    199. 

Block-plane,    See    Plane,    Block. 

Blue,    Prussian,    210. 

Board,    48. 

Board    construction,    184-192. 

Board-Hipper,    35,    36. 

Board    foot,    48,    109. 

Board    measure,    48,    109,    110. 

Board    structures,    184-192. 

Bolt   of   lock,    133. 

Bolts,   127. 

Book    shelves,    185. 

Boom,    Log,    20,    21. 

Boring,   Directions    for,    85. 

Boring    tools,    83-87. 

Box,    187-191. 

Bottoms,    188. 
Lids,    188,    189. 
Of   lock,    133. 
Brace.    103,    105,    137,    140. 
Brace,    Ratchet,    103.    105.    137. 
Brace-measure,    107. 
Bracket,    185. 

Brad-awl,    83,    84,    138.    140. 

Brads,    124. 

Breaking  out    the   roll-ways,    16. 

Bridging,    201. 

Brown,    Bismarck,    210,    211. 
Dark,    212. 
Reddish,  210,    211. 
Vandyke,    209. 

Bru.«h,    138,   141,    149,    209,    210,    221. 

Brush,    See   also    Duster. 

Brusli-Keeper.    150. 

Buckling   of   saw.    62,    65,    67. 

Buffer.    121,    147. 

Burn    of    shellac,    217. 

Butt-hinge,    131. 

Cabinet   construction,    192-195. 

Cabinet     for    nails    and    screws,    142, 
145,    147. 

Calipers,    114. 

Camp,   logging,    8,    9. 

Cant,    35,    foot-note. 

Cant-flipper,    35,   36. 

Cant-hook,    10,    13. 

Cape-chisel,    141. 

Care  of   the   shop,    14  2-150. 


224 


Index. 


225 


Carriage-bolts,    127. 
Carteria  lacca,  215. 
Carving    tools,    60,    140. 
Case-hardening,    46. 
C-Clamps. 

See    carriage-makers'    clamps. 
Ceiling,    201. 
Center-bit,  84,   86. 
Chain,    10,    13,    15,    16. 
Chair,    198-201. 
Chalk,    French,    197. 
Chamfer,   82,    115,    161,    184. 
Chatter,    71,   92. 
Cheek   of  joint,    160. 
Cheese-cloth,    221. 
Chest,   193,   195. 
Chest-hinge,    131. 
Chisel,    52-59,    136.    137.    139,    140,    183. 

See      also      Chiseling      end-wooa. 
Paring,    Sidewise    chiseling. 
Chisel,   Cape,    141. 

Carving,   54. 

Cold,    141. 

Corner,   55. 

Firmer,    54,    136,    139. 

Framing.    55. 

Mortise,    54,    55,    161. 

Paring,    54. 

Round-nosed    55,    141. 

Skew,    55. 

Turning,  54. 
Chisel-gage.  69. 
Chiseling,    end-wood,    56,    57,    183. 

Sidewise,  56. 

Perpendicular,    56. 
Choking   of   Plane,    76. 
Chopping    tools,    87,    88. 
Clamp,    101,    138,    141,    169. 

Carriage-makers,    102,    138,   141. 

Column,    169. 

Plane,    70,   77. 
Clapboards,   201. 
Claw  hammer,    96. 
Cleaning   tools,    121. 
Cleats,   186,    188. 
Comb-grain,    41,    4  2. 
Compass,    113,    114,    137.    139. 

Blackboard,    117,    141. 
Compass-saw,    66,    139. 
Consumer,    33,    41. 
Copal,    218. 
Coping-saw,    139. 
Copper,    Soldering,    141. 
Corner-blocks,    155,    No.    12,    177,    190. 
Corner-board,    201. 
Cornering  tool,   83. 
Corner-iron,    127,    128. 


Corner   locking,    164. 
Corrugated    fasteners,    125,    170. 
Cost    of   Equipment,    136-142. 
Countersink,     84,     87,     126,     138,     140, 

141. 
Cricket,    186. 

Crosscut-saw,    10,    64-66,    137,    139. 
Cross-grained    wood.    Planing,    75. 
Crowbar,   10. 

Crown   of   Plane-cutter,    71. 
Cruising,    8. 
Cup,    138,    141,    221. 
Curling-iron,    70. 
Cutter,    Plane,    70,    76,    77,    138. 
Cutting-gage,    116,    140. 
Cutting   tools,    51-83. 
Dado,    56,    80. 

See    also    Joint,    Dado. 
Dado-plane,    80. 
Dam,    Splash,    20,    21. 
Decay,   32,    45. 
Decking  logs.   13. 
Demonstration   seats,    143. 
Derrick,    Locomotive    boom,    25. 
Destructive   lumbering,    causes    of,    7. 
Die,  141. 
Die-holder,    141. 
Dividers,    113,    114,    137,    140. 
Dogs,    log,    34. 
Donkey    engine,     24. 
Door,    192,    193. 
Dovetail-saw,    66.    137.    139. 
Doweling,    127,    130,    152,    154,    175. 
Dowel-plate,    139,    140. 
Dowel-pointer  83,    139,   175. 
Dowel-rods,    127,    175. 
Draw-bolt,    lS4. 
Draw-knife,    61,    139. 
Drawer,    166,    190-192. 

Guide,    196. 

Rail,    196. 

Runner,    196. 
Drawing-board,    186,    188,    205. 
Dray-road,    9,    13. 
Drier,    222. 
Drill.      See  Hand   Drill. 

Twist,    84.    85.    138,    141. 
Drive,   The   log,    16-18. 
Duplicate    parts,    155,    204. 
Duster,   Bench,    121.    137.    139. 
Dynamite,    21. 
Edge    action,    52. 
Edged   Tools,    5 Iff. 
Edger,    35,    36,    37. 
Eight-square    scale,    108. 
Egg-shell    finish,    94.    216. 
Equipment,    Chap.    YI,    136-150. 


226 


Index. 


Ksoutchi on    of    lock,    U3. 

Expansive-bit,    S4,    87,    137,    140. 

Falling    beds,    24. 

Fastenings,   Chap.    V,    123-135. 

Felling   trees,    10,    11,    23. 

Ferrule,   54. 

File,    90.    91,    137,    140,    142,    147. 

File-card,     91,     137,     140. 

Filing  a  saw,    67. 

Filletster,    80,    137,    139. 

Filler,    213,    221. 

Finishing,  Wood,   Chap.    X,    209-223. 

Firmer-chisel, 

See    under    chisel, 
]-^irmer-goiige, 

See   under  gouge. 
[<"ish    glue,    129. 
Fitter,    9. 

Flooring,    30,    42,    174,    20],    206. 
Flume,    21,    22. 

Foerstner    Auger-bit,    84,    87. 
Foot-stool,    186. 
Fore-edge.    196. 
Fore-plane, 

See   under    Plane. 
Framed    structures,    195-201. 
Framing-chisel, 

See    under    Chisel. 
Frog,    Plane,    70,    75. 
Fuming    with    animoniii,    212,    214. 
Furring,    201. 
Gages,    114-116. 

Chisel,    69. 

Cutting,    116,    140. 

Marking,   114-116.   136,   139,   203. 

Mortise,   116,   140.    161. 

Pencil.    115. 

Screw.    116,    117,    126. 

Slitting,    116. 

Twist-drill,    117. 

Wire,   116,    117. 
Oelatin,    12S. 

Gimlet-bit,   84,   85,   137,   140. 
Glass-cutter,    138,    141. 
Glaziers    points,    125. 
Glue,   128-131. 

Fish,    129. 

Liquid,    129. 

Preparation   of,    129. 

Tests  of.   129. 
Glue-pot,   129,    138,    141,    148. 
Gluing,   Directions    for,    130,    153,    167- 

170,    173,    189,    190. 
Golden  Oak,   211. 
Gouge,    59,    60,    137,    140,    183. 
Grading  of  lumber,   36. 


Grain    of   wood,    60,    75,    172,    185,    186, 

192,    205,    209,    210. 
Green,    209. 
Grinder  or   Hog,    41. 
Grinder,    Empire    Tool,    61.    120,     121, 

137,    140. 
Grinding    of    tools.       See    sharpening. 
Grindstone,     117-120,    137,     140. 
Groove   for   drawer,    191. 
Groove   for  panel,    164. 
Groove,   Triangular.   66.    156,    158,   159, 

161. 
Hack-saw    13  7,    141. 
Hammer,    58,    94,    95,    96,    136,    139. 

Ball-peen,    142. 

Bell-faced,    95. 

Riveting,    141. 
Hand-drill.    104.    106,    138,    141. 
Handscrew,     101.     102,     138,     141,     170, 

173. 
Handscrew,    Iron,    102. 

See  also  Clamp,  carriage-makers. 
Hatchet,    88. 

Hauling   logs,    13.    15,    22,    23. 
Hinges.    131-133. 
Hinges,    sizes    of.    131. 
Hinging.    Directions    foi'.    132. 
Hog,    41. 

Holding     tools.     97-105. 
Hone.vcombing.    46. 
Horse.    64,    65.    100. 
Horsehair.    200. 

House    construction,    200,    201, 
Tee-road.    13.    14. 
Impregnation    of    timber,    47. 
Iron  acetate,    211,    212, 
Iron,    Soldering.      See    copper. 
,Iack-ladder,    32. 
Jack-plane.       See    Plane, 
.lam,    log,    18,   19,    21. 
.Tapan,    209,    222. 
.Japanese.    69,    97,    189. 
•Joinery,    151. 
.Joint,    Beaded,    175,    No.    73,    182. 

Bevel-shoulder,    172,    No.    67,    182. 

Bird's   mouth,   172,   No.    69,    182. 

Boat-builders,  152,  No,   7,   177, 

Brace,    171,    No.    65,    182. 

Brace.    Housed.    172.    No.    66,    182. 
207. 

Bridle,    172,  No.    68,   182. 

Butt.    155.    No.    11,    177,    187,    206, 

Butt,    Doweled,    152,    No.    8,    153, 
177.    194. 

Caulked,    157.    No.    22,    178. 

Checked,   157,   No,   21,   178, 


Index. 


Joint,  continued. 

Cogged,    157,    No.    22,    178. 
Corked,   157,   No.    22,    178. 
Column,    169,    No.    52.    181. 
Cross-lap,    155,    No.    14,    177. 
Dado,   157,   No.    25,   179,    191. 
Dado    and    rabbet,     158,    No.     26, 

179,     187. 
Dado,   Dovetail,    158,   No.    28,    179, 

191,    206. 
Dado,    housed.    157,    No.    25,    179, 

187,   207. 
Dado,     tongue,     and     rabbet,     158. 

No.    27,    179,   191. 
Dovetail,    Blind    miter,    167,    No. 
51,    180,    187. 
Half-blind,    166,    No.    49,    180. 
Lap,    166,   No.   49,   ISO. 
Secret,   167,   No.    51,   180,    187. 
Stopped    lap,    166.    No.    50,    180. 
Thru  multiple,  165,  No.  48,  180, 

187,    206. 
Thru    single,    165,    No.    47,    180, 

194. 
Doweled,    175,    No.    75,    182. 
Draw-bolt,   154,  No.    10,   177. 
Edge-to-edge,    172-174. 
End-lap,     156,     No.     16,     178,     194, 

206. 
Fillistered,    174,    No.    71,    182. 
Fished,   151,   No.    2,   177,   207. 
Forked   tenon    157,   No.    23,   178. 
Gain,    159,   No.    29,   179,    205. 

Dovetail,    158,    No.    28,    179. 
Glue,   172,   No.   70,   182. 
Glued-and-blocked.     155,     No.     12. 

177. 
Grooved,    157,    No.    25,    179. 
Halved   Tee,    156,   No.   15,   178. 
Halving,    Dovetail     157,     No.     18, 

178. 
Halving,     Beveled,     157,     No.     19, 

178. 
Halving,    155-157. 
See    also    Joint,    Cross-lap,    End- 
lap,    Middle   lap. 
Haunching,     Table,     164,    No.     43. 
180. 
Taper,   164,   No.    43.    180. 
Hopper,  155,  No.   13,   177. 
Lap-dovetail,    157,  No.    18,   178. 
Lapped   and   strapped   151,   No.    1, 

177. 
Ledge,   157,  No.   24,  179,   187. 
Ledge    and    miter,     171,     No.     58, 

181,    187,    206. 
Matched,    174,    No.    72,    182. 


Joint,  continued. 

Middle-lap,    156,   No.    15,   178. 
Miter,    167,    No.    52,    181,    187,    194, 
206. 
Double  dovetail  keyed,  171,  No. 

57,    181. 
Double  tongue,  171,  No.   60,  181. 
Doweled,    170,    No.    53,    181. 
Lipped,   171,   No.    58,   181. 
Slip   dovetail,    171,    No.    56,   181. 
Slip-feather,    170,    No.    55,    181. 
Slip-key,    170,    No.    55,    181. 
Spline,    170,   No.    54,   181,    187. 
Stopped,   171,   No.    59,   181. 
Tongue,    170,   No.    54,    181. 
Mortise-and-tenon,     58,     127,     160- 
164,    172,    194. 
Bare-faced,     164,    No.     44,     180, 

185. 
Blind,   160,   No.    32,   179,    193. 
Double,    163,    No.    41,    ISO. 
Dovetail,    162,    No.    37,    179. 
End,    164,    No.    46,    180. 
Foxtail,    162,   No.    36,    179. 
Haunched.     163.     No.     42,      180, 

193,    196,    207. 
Housed,    164,    No.    45,    ISO. 
Keyed,  163,  No.  39,  ISO,  185. 
Oblique,    172,    No.    67,    182. 
Open,    164,    No.    46,    180. 
Pinned,    162,    No.    38.    ISO,    194, 

207. 
Shoulder,    163,    No.    40,    180. 
Sttib,    160,   No.    30,    17  9. 
Thru,    160,    No.    31,    179. 
Tusk,    163,    No.    40.    ISO,    207. 
Wedged,    12S,    162.    Xo.'^.    34    and 
35,    179. 
Notched,  157,   No.    20.    178. 
Notch,    Double,    157.    No.    21,    17S. 
Rabbet,     157,     No.     24,     179,     174; 

No.    71,    182,    187. 
Rebated.      See   Joint,    Rabbet. 
Rubbed,     172,     No.     70,     173,     182, 

205. 
Scarf,    151,    Nos.    4,    5,    6    and    7, 

177,   204,    207. 
Slip,    164,    No.    46,    ISO,    194. 
Spliced,   151,   Nos.    4,   5,   6,    7,    177, 

204,    206,    207. 
Spline,    175,    No.    74,    182. 
Squeezed,   172,  No.   70,   174,   182. 
Stretcher.    171,    No.    61,    181. 
Strut,   171,  No.    62,   181,    207. 
Thrust,   171,   Nos.   63   and   64,   ISl, 

207. 
Tie,    171,   Nos.    63    and   64,    181. 


228 


Index. 


Joint,  continued. 

Toe,    171,   Nos.   63   and   64.   1!<1. 

Toe-nailed   154,   No.    9.    177. 

Tongne-and-groove     174,     No.     7l'. 
182. 
Jointer-plane,    71'. 
Jointing  a  saw,    68. 
Joints,    Chap.    VII,    151-182. 

Beveled,    167-172. 

Butt,    152-155. 

Dovetail,    164-167,    204. 

Halving,    155-160,    203,    204. 

Heading,    151-152. 

Mortise-and-tenon,     58,    127,     160- 
164,    172. 
Joi-sts,    201. 
Kerf,   10,  30,   62,   65. 
Key-pin   of   lock,    133. 
Kiln,    lumber,   44,   46. 
Knife,    61,    136,    139. 
Knife,    Sloyd,    61. 
Knob,  Plane.   70. 
Knock-down    furniture.    163. 
Knuckle  of  hinge.   131. 
Lac,   insect,    2i5. 

Seed,    216. 

Shell,    216. 

Stick,  216, 
Lacquer,    218. 
Ladle,    141. 
Landlooking,    7. 
Latli-machines,    39,    41. 
Laths,    39,    49,    201. 
Lay-out,    152,    154,    155,    156.    158,    159. 

160,    163,    165,    183,    191,    195,    203, 
204. 
Leather,    59,    200. 
Leaves  of  hinge,   132. 
Level,   Spirit,    116. 
Lever-cap,    70,   77. 
Lid   of   box,    188. 
Lighting   of  shop,    14  2. 
Live  rollers,   35. 
Loading  logs,  15. 
Lock,    mortise,    134. 

Rim,    133,    134. 
Lockers,    13S,    142,    146,    147. 
Locks,    133,    134. 
Locomotive,    Geared,    26. 

Snow,    28. 

Boom-derrick,    25. 
Log-boom,    20,    21. 
Log-carriage,    34,    35.    36. 
Log-flipper,    34. 
Logging,    Chap.    I,    7-29. 
Log-kicker,    34. 


Log-slip,    34. 

Log-stop,    34. 

Logwood,    211,    212. 

Loss    of    tools,    144-146. 

Lumber,    48. 

Lumber   yard,    36,    38. 

Lumberman's    board    rule.    111. 

Lumber  mill,   32,    33. 

M    (1000    feet),    48,    49. 

Machine-screws,    127. 

Mahogany,    211. 

Mallet,    58,    96,    139. 

Marking-gage,    114-116,    136,    139,    203. 

.Marking    tools,    113-117. 

Matcliing-plane,    80,    139. 

Maul,   10. 

Measurements,    203. 

Measuring-tools,    105-117. 

Measuring    wood,    13,    48,    49,    105-116. 

Mill-pond,    21,    32. 

Miter-bo.K,    102,    137,    139,    194. 

Miter-clamp,     138,     141. 

Miter-square,    113,    137,    140. 

Molding-plane,    SO. 

Monkey-wrench,    103,    138,    141. 

Mortise,   58,    160. 

i\Iortise-and- tenon. 

See    Joint,    Mortise-and-tenon. 
Mortise-chisel,    54,    55,    161. 
Mortise-gage,    116,    140,    161. 
:Multiple    parts,    204. 
Muntin.    192.    193. 
:\luslin.    200,    221. 
Nails.    123.    124. 

Flat-liead,    124. 

Size  of,    124. 

Wire,    123. 

Wrought,    123. 
Nailset,   97,    138,   141. 
Nig-ger,   steam,   34,   35. 
Nippers,   103,    105,    138,   141. 
Octagonal    scale,     108. 
Oil,    65,    130,    221. 

Banana,    213,    216. 

Boiled,    209,    210,    222. 
Oiler,   137,   140. 
Oilstone,    58,    121,    137,    140. 
Ordering  of  lumber,   4  9. 
Paint,    220-221. 

Panel   construction,    164.    192-195,    205. 
Panel-iron,    127.    12S. 
Paper,    Building,    201. 
Paring,    55,    57. 
Paring-chisel,    54. 
Peavey,    is. 
Peen   of   hammer,    95, 


Index. 


229 


Picture-frame.    167-169,    194,    205. 

Clamp.    167.    168. 

Vise.    100.   101.    167,    194. 
Pigments,    209. 
Pillow,  77. 
Pincers,    103,    105. 
Pinch-dog,    102,    103,    141,    170. 
Pintle  of  hinge,   131. 
Plane,    parts    of,    70. 

Bed    rock,    71,    75,    137,    139. 

Block,    77,    137,    139. 

Circular,    80. 

Fore,    72.   137,    139. 

Jack,    71,    136.    138. 

Jointer.    72. 

Matching,    80.    139. 

Molding,    80. 

Oriental,   69. 

Rabbet,    79,    137,    139,    194. 

Router,   83,   139,    160. 

Scraper,    79,    139. 

Scratch,    79,    130. 

Scrub,    78. 

Smooth,    72.    75,    137,    139. 

Tongue-and-groove.    80. 

Universal,    81,    82. 
Plane-iron,    70,    77. 
Planes,    69-82. 
Planing,   Directions   for,    74-76,    78. 

Order    of,    72. 
Plate-rack,    185. 
Plates,  metal,   127. 
Plate,   wall,   201. 
Pliers,    103,    105,    138,    141. 
Plow,    Snow,    13. 
Plug-cutter,   84,    86,    126,    140. 
Points  in  saw-teeth,   63. 
Polish,    French,    217-218. 

Oil,   214. 

Varnish.    220. 

Wax,    214. 
Polishes,    214-220. 
Position   of  benches,    14-2. 
Posts,    corner,    201. 
Potash,    150. 

Potassium    bichromate,    130,    211,    212. 
Poun-ding   tools,    94-97. 
Preservation  of   lumber,    47. 

See  also  seasoning. 
Principles   of  joinery,   Chap.    IX,   203- 

208. 
Pumice  stone,   217. 
Quarter-sawing.   42,   43. 
Rabbet-plane,   79,    137,    139,    194. 
Raft,    Giant,    27,    29. 
Rafter-table,    110. 
Rafters,  201. 


Rail,   186,   193. 
Rail,   Drawer,    196. 
Railways,    logging,    22,    2G. 
Rasp,    91. 

Ratchet-brace,    103,    105,    137. 
Reamer,    84,    87. 
Rebate.      See   Rabbet. 
Red,   Venetian,    210. 
Ribbon,   Wall,    201. 
Ridge-pole,    201. 
Rift-sawing,    41. 
Rip-saw,   63,   137,    139. 
Rivet-set,    141. 
Road,    Ice,    13,    14. 

Logging,    9,    13.    14. 

Monkeys    13,    15. 

Tote,    8. 
Rollers,    Dead,    36. 
Rollers,    Live,    35. 
Roll-ways,   16. 
Rossing  of  bark,    24. 
Router-plane,    83,    139,    160. 
Rule.    105,    106,    137,    139,    203. 
Running  foot,    49. 
Rust,    125. 

On    tools,    147. 
Sacking  the  rear,   16. 
Saddle    seat,    60,    199. 
Sandpaper,    93,    221. 
Saw,  62-68. 
Selvage   of  lock,    133. 
Saw,    Back,    65,    136,    138. 

Band,    30,    31,    32. 

Butting,    36. 

Circular,    30. 

Compass,    66,    139. 

Compression.   62. 

Coping,    139. 

Crosscut,   10,    64,   137,    139. 

Cut-off,    36,    39. 

Dovetail,    6-6,    137.    139. 

Gang,    30. 

Hack,    137,    141. 

Logging,    10,    23. 

Pulling,    10,    62,    67. 

Pushing,    62. 

Rip,   63,   137,   139. 

Tension,    62,   67. 

Turning,    67,    137,    139. 
Saw-carriage,    34,    35,    36. 
Sawdust,    39. 

Saw-filing   and   setting,    67. 
Saw-horse,   64,    65,    100. 
Sawing,    Directions    for,    64,    65. 
Saw-jointer,    68. 
Sawmill,    32,    33. 
Sawmilling.    Chap.    II,    30-44. 


280 


Index. 


S;nv-set,    6S. 

Saw-vise,    67,    68. 

Sawing  into   lengths.    11,    12,    24. 

Scaling  logs,    13. 

Scrap-box,    187. 

Scraper,    76,   91,    1.37,    139. 

Scraper,   Veneer,    91.    92,    137,    139. 

Scraper-plane,    79,    139. 

Scraper    steel,    92,    137.    139. 

Scraping   tools,    90-94. 

Scrap   pile,    41,    42. 

Scratch-awl,   116,   140. 

Scratch-plane,    79,    130. 

Screen-hinge,    131. 

Screw-box,    139. 

Screwdriver.    104,    106.    138,    14o. 

Bit,  105,  106.  138  140. 
Screw-gage,  116,  117,  126. 
Screws,    125-127. 

Rule   for   using,    126. 

Sizes    of,    126. 
Scribing,   112. 
Scrub-plane,    78. 
Seasoning.    Chap.    Ill,   4o-48. 

Air,    45. 

Hot-air.    46. 

Kiln,    46. 

Oil,   47. 

Water,   47. 
Set   of  saw,   63,   67. 
Shank,    54. 
Sharpening   of   tools,    Tlie,    54,    58,    59, 

60.    67,    76,    85,    86,    92-93,    117-121. 
Sharpening-tools.    11 7-121. 
Sheatliing.    201. 
Shellac,    149.   215-21S. 

Orange,    216. 

White,    216. 
Shelves,   185,    205. 
:Uiingles,    49,    201,    205. 
Shingle-machine,   39,    41. 
.Shoe-pegs.    128. 
Slioulder   of   joint,    160. 
Shlinkage,     186,      188,      1S9,      191,      192, 

194,    205. 
Siding.    201. 
Sienna.    209. 
Sighting,    71,    75. 
Silex,    214. 
Sill,    201. 
Sizing,   130. 
Skidder,    steam.    25. 
Skidway.    9,    13,    24. 
Slab,   34,   35.   39. 
Slab-slasher,    39,    4  0. 
.Slash -grain,    41,    4  2. 
Slash -sawing,    41. 


Sleigh    haul,    13,    15. 
Sliding   cut,    53,    56,    75,    78. 
Sliding    T     bevel,     113. 
Slipstone,    60,    121,    137,    140. 
Slip-tongue    carts,    22. 
Smooth-plane,    72,    137,    139. 
Snips,    141. 
Snow-locomotive,   28. 
Soap,   as  a   lubricant,    126. 

To    prevent    gluing,    130. 
Sole   of    Plane,    70. 
Sorting-jack,    21. 
Sorting-shed.    38. 
Spiriting  off,    217. 
Splash-dam.    20.   21. 
Splitting   tools,   51. 
Spokeshave,    82,    137,    139,    183. 
Stains,   209-213. 

Chemical.    211-213. 

Oil,    150.    209.    210. 

Spirit.    211. 

Water,    210.    211. 
Steel    square.    107-111.    137,    140. 
Steel    wool.    94.    211.    217,    221. 
Sticking,    45,    48. 
Stile,    193. 

Storing    of    lumber,    48. 
Stove,  Gas,   138,   141,   148. 
Stove-bolts,    127. 
Straight  cut,  53. 
Strength    of  joints,    206. 
Strike  of  lock.    133. 
Stringer,    196. 
Stropping,    59. 
Studding,    201. 
Superposition.     Method     of,     156,     158 

159,    163,    166,    204. 
Survey   of   forest    laml,    7. 
Svvainper,    12. 
Sweep   of  brace,   103. 
Table-hinge,    131. 
Table    construction,    130,    164,    195. 

See   also   Table   Top. 
Table  top,  172,   175,   197. 
Taboret,    169,    170,    186. 
Tacks,   124. 

Tacks,    double-pointed,    102,    124. 
Tang,   54. 
Tank,   14. 

Taper  of  cutting  tools,   52. 
Tee-hinge,    131. 
Teeth  of  saw,   63. 
Tenon,   160,   206. 

See    also    Mortise    and    tetion. 

Joint,    Mortise   jnid    tenon. 
Tenon-saw,  65, 
Toe  of  Plane,   70,   71. 


Index. 


231 


'I'hroat  of  Plane,    70. 

Tie-beams,    201. 

Timber,    48. 

Tonguing-and-gTooving-pIane,     80. 

Tool-grinder,    61,   120,    121,    137,    140. 

Tool-holder    for   grinding,    118-120. 

Tool-rack,    143,    144. 

Tools,    Chap.    IV,    pp.    51-122. 

Tools,   logging,   10. 

Traction    engine,    28. 

Tools,    Loss    of,    144-14G. 

Tractor,    28. 

Trammel-points,    114,    140. 

Transfer,    Lumber,    36,   37. 

Transportation    of    logs,    13,    15.    16ff, 
23 

Travoy.     9. 

Tray,    60,    183. 

Triangle,    Blackboard,    141. 

Trimmer,    36,   38. 

Trimming   logs,    iz. 

Tripoli,   121,   147. 

Trolley    for   logs,    25. 

Try-square,   112,   136,    139,    140,    203. 

Tumbler  of  lock,   133. 

Turning-saw,    67,    137,    139,    183. 

Turpentine,    209,    210,    214,    222. 

Tusk. 

See        Joint,        mortise-and-tenon, 
tusk. 
Twist-bit,    84,    85. 
Twist-drill,    84,    85,    138. 
Twist-drill-gage,    117. 
Umber,  209. 
Undercut,    206. 
Universal  plane,   81. 
Unjoined    pieces,    183,    184. 
Upholstering,    199-201. 
Valuation    survey,    7. 
Van.   Logging  camp.   9. 


Varnish,   149,   215-220. 
Copal,    218-220. 
Cremona,    218. 
Spirit,    215-218. 

Varnishing,    Process    of,    219. 

Vaseline,    147. 

Veining  tools,    140. 

Veneer-scraper,    91,   92,    137,   139. 

Vermilion,   210. 
Vise,    99,   138. 

Iron,   138,   141. 
Walnut,    210. 
Waney    boards,    36. 
Warping,    48. 
Washer-cutter,   87,   140. 
Waste,  cotton,   209,   221. 
\vaste,  sawmill,   39. 
Waterproof   glue,    130. 
Water-stains,    210. 
Water-table,    201. 
Wax.    214. 
Webbing,    200. 
Wedge,    Plane,    69,    70. 
Wedge,    10,    51,    52,    128,    162. 

Action    51,    52. 
Whetting    tools,    58. 
Wind  in  board,   74. 
Winding  sticks.   74,   113. 
Window-sash,    194. 
Wire   edge,    59. 
Wire-gage,    116,    117. 
Wooden    structures,    types    of.    Chap. 

VIII,  183-202. 
Working  edge,  72,  115. 
Working  face,  72,  115. 
Wrench,    103. 

See    also    Monkey-wrench. 
Yarding  logs,    24,    26,    27. 
Yard-stick,    138,    141. 
YelloAv,   Chrome,    209. 


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